FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA WITH NOTES ON INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38 NUMBER 61 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE $>f ~c£ ■ V3 e/r~> FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA By Olaus J. Murie, Biologist 1 INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38 in tr nj o □ □ m D By Victor B. Sclieffer, Biologist NUMBER 61 MA- BIOLOGICAL LA? or. I : P V WOODS HOLE, MASS W. H. 0. !. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fred A. Seaton, Secretary FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Arnie J. Suomela, Commissioner PUBLISHED BY U. S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE • WASHINGTON • 1959 PRINTED AT II. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 23, D. C. Price .$1.23 cents. CONTENTS FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA, by Olaus J. Murie Page Foreword xiii Introduction l Geography and geology 3 Climate 10 Environment and biotic distribution 11 Geographic and geologic influences 12 Asiatic immigrants 12 Bering Sea avifauna 14 Fauna of wider northern distribution 15 Southern and southeastern birds 16 Environmental influence 17 Ecological classification 18 Vegetation 22 Birds 27 Family Gaviidae 28 Gavia immer, Common loon 28 Gavia adamsii, Yellow-billed loon 29 Gavia arctica, Arctic loon 29 Gavia stellata, Red-throated loon 31 Family Podicipedidae 32 Podiceps griscgeiia, Red-necked grebe 32 Podiceps auritiis, Horned grebe 33 Family Diomedeidae 34 Diumedea nigripes, Black-footed albatross 34 Diomedea albatrus, Short-tailed albatross 36 Diomedea immutabilis, Laysan albatross 39 Family Procellariidae 41 Puffinus tenuirostris, Slender-billed shearwater 41 Puffinus griseus, Sooty shearwater 44 Pterodroma inexpectata, Scaled petrel 44 Pterodroma cookii, Cook's petrel 45 Fulmarus glacialis, Fulmar 45 Family Hydrobatidae 48 Oceanodroma furcata, Fork-tailed petrel 48 Oceanodroma leucorhoa, Leach's petrel 51 Family Phalacrocoracidae 52 Phalacrocorax auritiis, Double-crested cormorant 52 Phalacrocorax pelagicus, Pelagic cormorant 55 Phalacrocorax mile, Red-faced cormorant 57 Family Ardeidae 59 Ardea hcrodias, Great blue heron 59 iii Page Family Anatidae 59 Olor columbianus, Whistling swan 59 Olor buccinator, Trumpeter swan 61 Branta canadensis, Canada goose 61 Brant a nigricans, Black brant 67 Philacte canagica, Emperor goose 69 Anser albifrons, White-fronted goose 73 Chen hyperborea, Snow goose 74 Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard 74 Anas strepera, Gadwall '6 Anas acuta, Pintail 77 Anas falcata, Falcated teal 78 Anas crecca, Common teal 79 Anas carolinensis, Green-winged teal 80 Mareca penelope, European widgeon 82 Mareca americana, American widgeon 82 Spatula clypeata, Shoveler 83 Aythya americana, Redhead 83 Ay thy a valisineria, Canvasback 84 Aythya marila, Greater scaup 84 Aythya affinis, Lesser scaup 86 Aythya fuligula, Tufted duck 86 Bucephala clangula, Common goldeneye 86 Bucephala islandica, Barrow's goldeneye 87 Bucephala albeola, Bufflehead 88 Clangula hyemalis, Oldsquaw 89 Histrionicus histrionicus, Harlequin duck 90 Polysticta stelleri, Steller's eider 92 Somateria mollissima, Common eider 94 Somateria spectabilis, King eider 97 Lampronetta fischeri, Spectacled eider 98 Melanitta deglandi, White-winged scoter 99 Melanitta perspicillata, Surf scoter 101 Oidemia nigra, Common scoter 102 Mergus merganser, Common merganser 104 Mergus serrator, Red-breasted merganser 105 Family Accipitridae 106 Accipiter gentilis, Goshawk 106 Accipiter striatus, Sharp-shinned hawk 107 Buteo lagopus, Rough-legged hawk 107 Aquila chrysaetos, Golden eagle 109 Haliaeetus albicilla, Gray sea eagle 110 Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Bald eagle Ill Haliaeetus pelagicus, Steller's sea eagle 117 Circus cyanetis, Marsh hawk 117 Pandion haliaetus, Osprey 118 Family Falconidae 118 Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon 118 Falco peregrinus, Peregrine falcon 119 Falco columbarius, Pigeon hawk 120 Falco sparverius, Sparrow hawk 121 Family Tetraonidae 121 Canachites canadensis, Spruce grouse 121 IV Page Lagopus lag opus, Willow ptarmigan 122 Lagopus mutus, Rock ptarmigan 123 Family Gruidae 129 Grus canadensis, Sandhill crane 129 Family Rallidae 130 Fulica americana, American coot 130 Family Haematopodidae 130 Haematopus bachmani, Black oystercatcher 130 Family Charadriidae 132 Charadrius dubius, Little ringed plover 132 Charadrius semipalmatus, Semipalmated plover 132 Pluvialis dominica, American golden plover 133 Squatarola squatarola, Black-bellied plover 134 Aphriza virgata, Surfbird t 135 Arenaria interpres, Ruddy turnstone 135 Arenaria melanocephala, Black turnstone 136 Family Scolopacidae 137 Capella gallinago, Common snipe 137 Numenius phaeopus, Whimbrel 138 Numenius tahitiensis, Bristle-thighed curlew 138 Actitis macularia, Spotted sandpiper 138 Tringa glareola, Wood sandpiper 139 Heteroscelus incanum, Wandering tattler 139 Totanus melanoleucus, Greater yellowlegs 140 Totanus flavipes, Lesser yellowlegs 141 Calidris canutus, Knot 141 Erolia ptilocnemis, Rock sandpiper 141 Erolia acuminata, Sharp-tailed sandpiper 146 Erolia melanotos, Pectoral sandpiper 146 Erolia bairdii, Baird's sandpiper 147 Erolia minutilla, Least sandpiper 147 Erolia alpina, Dunlin 150 Limnodromus griseus, Short-billed dowitcher 150 Ereunetes pusillus, Semipalmated sandpiper 152 Ereunetes mauri, Western sandpiper 152 Limosa fedoa, Marbled godwit 153 Limosa lapponica, Bar-tailed godwit 153 Limosa haemastica, Hudsonian godwit 154 Crocethia alba, Sanderling 154 Family Phalaropodidae 155 Phalaropus fulicarius, Red phalarope 155 Lobipes lobatus, Northern phalarope 156 Family Stercorariidae 1°7 Stercorarius pomarinus, Pomarine jaeger 157 Stercorarius parasiticus, Parasitic jaeger 159 Stercorarius longicaudus, Long-tailed jaeger 161 Family Laridae 162 Larus hyperboreus, Glaucous gull • • • ■ • I 62 Lay-us glaucescens, Glaucous-winged gull ■ 165 Larus schistisagus, Slaty-backed gull ,. 171 Larus argentatus, Herring gull I 71 Larus delawarensis, Ring-billed gull 172 Larus canus, Mew gull v Page Lotus Philadelphia, Bonaparte's gull 174 Larus ridibundus, Black-headed gull 175 Rissa tridactyla, Black-legged kittiwake 175 Rissa brevirostris, Red-legged kittiwake 176 Xema sabini, Sabine's gull 178 Sterna hirundo, Common tern 178 Sterna paradisaea, Arctic tern 179 Sterna aletitica, Aleutian tern 180 Family Alcidae 182 Uria aalge, Common murre 182 Uria lomvia, Thick-billed murre 182 Cepphus columba, Pigeon guillemot 186 Brachyramphus marmoratum, Marbled murrelet 187 Brachyramphus brevirostre, Kittlitz's murrelet 188 Synthliboramphus antiquum, Ancient murrelet 189 Ptychoramphus aleutica, Cassin's auklet 191 Cyclorrhynchus psittacula, Parakeet auklet 193 Aethia cristatella, Crested auklet 194 Aethia pusilla, Least auklet 197 Aethia pygmaea, Whiskered auklet 200 Cerorhdnca monocerata, Rhinoceros auklet 202 Fratercula corniculata, Horned puffin 202 Lunda cirrhata, Tufted puffin 204 Family Cuculidae 205 Cuculus saturatus, Oriental cuckoo 205 Family Strigidae 205 Bubo virginianus, Horned owl 205 Nyceta scandiaca, Snowy owl 206 Surnia ulula, Hawk owl 207 Asio flammeus, Short-eared owl 207 Aegolius funereus, Boreal owl 209 Family Trochilidae 210 Selasphorus rufus, Rufous hummingbird 210 Family Alcedinidae 210 Megaceryle alcyon, Belted kingfisher 210 Family Picidae 211 Dendrocopos pubescens, Downy woodpecker 211 Picoides arcticus, Black-backed three- toed woodpecker .... 211 Picoides tridactylus, Northern three-toed woodpecker .... 212 Family Tyrannidae 212 Sayornis saya, Say's phoebe 212 Family Alaudidae 212 Eremophila alpestris, Horned lark 212 Family Hirundinidae 212 Tachycineta thalassina, Violet-green swallow 212 Iridoprocne bicolor, Tree swallow 213 Riparia riparia, Bank swallow 213 Hirundo rustica, Barn swallow 214 Family Corvidae 214 Perisoreus canadensis, Gray jay 214 Pica pica, Black-billed magpie 215 VI Page Corvus corax, Common raven 216 Corvus caurinus, Northwestern crow 217 Nucifraga columbiana, Clark's nutcracker 217 Family Paridae 217 Parus atricapillus, Black-capped chickadee 217 Pm~us hudsonic^is, Boreal chickadee 218 Family Certhiidae 219 Certhia familiaris, Brown creeper 219 Family Cinclidae 220 Cinclus mexicanus, Dipper 220 Family Troglodytidae 221 Troglodytes troglodytes, Winter wren 221 Family Turdidae 225 Turdus migratorius, Robin 225 Ixoreus naevius, Varied thrush 225 Hylocichla guttata, Hermit thrush 226 Hylocichla ustulata, Swainson's thrush 228 Hylocichla minima, Gray-cheeked thrush 228 Luscinia calliope, Siberian ruby throat 228 Family Sylviidae 229 Phylloscopus borealis, Arctic warbler 229 Regulus satrapa, Golden-crowned kinglet 229 Regulus calendula, Ruby-crowned kinglet 229 Family Motacillidae 230 Motacilla alba, White wagtail 230 Motacilla flava, Yellow wagtail 230 Anthus spinoletta, Water pipit 231 Anthus cervinus, Red-throated pipit 233 Family Laniidae 233 Lanius excubitor, Northern shrike 233 Family Parulidae 234 Vermivora celata, Orange-crowned warbler 234 Dendroica petechia, Yellow warbler 234 Dendroica coronata, Myrtle warbler 235 Dendroica striata, Blackpoll warbler 235 Seiurus noveboracensis, Northern water thrush 236 Wilsonia pussila, Wilson's warbler 236 Family Icteridae 236 Euphagus carolinus, Rusty blackbird 236 Family Fringillidae 237 Pinicola enucleator, Pine grosbeak 237 Leucosticte tephrocotis, Gray-crowned rosy finch 237 Acanthis hornemanni, Hoary redpoll 240 Acanthis flammea, Common redpoll 240 Spinus pinus, Pine siskin 242 Loxia curvirostra, Red crossbill 242 Loxia leucoptera, White-winged crossbill 242 Passerculus sandwichensis, Savannah sparrow 243 J unco hyemalis, Slate-colored junco 246 Junco oreganus, Oregon junco 246 Spizella arborea, Tree sparrow 247 Zonotrichia leucophrys, White-crowned sparrow 247 Zonotrichia atricapilla, Golden-crowned sparrow 248 vii Page Passerella iliacn, Fox sparrow 249 Melospiza lincolnii, Lincoln's sparrow 254 Melospiza melodia, Song sparrow 254 Calcarius lappomcus, Lapland long-spur 257 Plectrophenax nivalis, Snow bunting- 258 Plectrophenax hyperboreus, McKay's bunting 260 Emberiza rustica, Rustic bunting 260 Mammals 262 Family Soricidae 262 Sorex cinereus, Cinereous shrew 262 Sorex Uindrensis, Tundra saddle-backed shrew 263 Sorex hydrodromus, Unalaska saddle-backed shrew 263 Sorex obscurus, Dusky shrew 265 Microsorex hoyi, Pigmy shrew 266 Family Vespertilionidae 266 Myotis lucifugus, Little brown bat 266 Family Ursidae 266 Euarctos americanus, Black bear 266 Ursus arctos, Brown bear 267 Thalarctos maritimus, Polar bear 274 Family Procyonidae 274 Procyon lotor, Raccoon 274 Family Mustelidae 275 Martes americana, Marten 275 Mustela erminea, Weasel 275 Mustela rixosa, Least weasel 276 Mustela vision, Mink 276 Gulo luscus, Wolverine 277 Lutra canadensis, Otter 278 Enhydra lutris, Sea otter 278 Family Canidae 287 Vulpes fulva, Red fox 287 Alopex lagopus, Blue fox 292 Canis lupus, Wolf 304 Family Felidae 305 Lynx cana,densis, Canada lynx 305 Family Otariidae 305 Eumetopias jubata, Steller sea lion 305 Callorhinus u.rsinus, Northern fur seal 306 Family Phocidae 307 Phoca vitulina, Harbor seal 307 Pusa hispida, Ringed seal 309 Pagophilus groenlandicus, Harp seal 309 Histriophoca fasciata, Ribbon seal 310 Erignathus barbatus, Bearded seal 310 Family Odobenidae 311 Odobenus rosma>-us, Walrus 311 Family Sciuridae 314 Marmota caligata, Hoary marmot 314 Citellus parryii, Ground squirrel 314 Citellus kodiacensis, Ground squirrel 316 Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, Red squirred 316 viii Paw Family Castoridae 317 Castor canadensis, Beaver 317 Family Cricetidae 317 Synaptomys borealis, Lemming mouse 317 Lemmus trimucronatus , Lemming 318 Dicrostonyx groenlandicus, Collared lemming 318 Clethrionomys rutilus, Red-backed mouse 320 Microtus oeconomus, Meadow mouse 320 Microtus pennsylvanicus, Meadow mouse 324 Ondatra zibethicus, Muskrat 324 Family Muridae 324 Mas musculus, House mouse 324 Rattus norvegicus, House rat 325 Family Zapodidae 326 Zapus hudsonius, Jumping mouse 326 Family Erethizontidae 327 Erethizon dorsatum, American porcupine 327 Family Ochotonidae • • ■ 327 Ochotona collaris, Collared pika 327 Family Leporidae 327 Lepus americanus, Varying hare 327 Lepras othus, Arctic hare 328 Family Cervidae 328 Cervus canadensis, Elk (Wapiti) 328 Odocoileus hemionus, Black-tailed deer 328 Alces alces, Moose 329 Rnngifer arcticus, Barren ground caribou 329 Rangifer sp., Reindeer 331 Family Bovidae 332 Ovis dalli, Dall sheep (White sheep) 332 Family Hydrodamalidae 332 Hydrodamalis gigas, Steller sea cow 332 Family Balaenidae 333 Eubalaena sieboldi, Pacific right whale 333 Balaena mysticetus, Bowhead whale 333 Family Eschrichtidae 334 Eschriclitius glaucus, Gray whale 334 Family Balaenopteridae 334 Balaenoptera physalus, Finback whale 334 Balaenoptera borealis, Sei whale 334 Sibbaldus musculus, Blue whale 335 Megaptera novaeangliae, Humpback whale . . 335 Family Physeteridae : • • 335 Physeter catodon, Sperm whale 335 Family Delphinidae 335 Grampus rectipinna, Pacific killer whale 335 Globicephala scammonii, Pacific blackfish 337 Lissodelphis borealis, Right- whale porpoise 337 Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, Pacific striped porpoise 337 Phocoena vomerina, Pacific harbor porpoise 337 Phocoenoides dalli, Dall porpoise 338 Family Monodontidae °°° Delphinapterus leucas, White whale (Beluga) 338 ix Page FamiW ^iphiidae 339 1 vradius bairdii, Baird beaked whale 339 Mesoplodon stejnegeri, Stejneger beaked whale 339 Zipliiax cavirostris, Cuvier beaked whale 339 References 340 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Pa se Frontispiece: The Brown Bear in the Aleutians xiv 1. Aleutian Islands 4 2. Semichi Islands 6 3. Sketch elevation of Agattu Island 6 4. Sketch elevation of Buldir Island 6 5. Sketch elevation of several Aleutian Islands 6 6. Sketch elevation of three Aleutian Islands 7 7. Little Sitkin Island 7 8. Sketch elevation of Rat Island 7 9. West end of Rat Island 7 10. West end of Rat Island 8 11. Southeast end of Rat Island 8 12. Sketch elevation of Semisopochnoi Island 8 13. Sketch elevation of West Unalaga Island 8 14. Sketch elevation of Ilak Island 9 15. Sketch elevation of Kavalga Island 9 16. Sadatanak Inland 9 17. Sagchudak Island 9 18. Sketch elevation of Bobrof Island 9 19. Anagaksik Island 9 20. Sketch elevations of Kasatochi Island and Koniuji Island 9 21. Seguam Island 10 22. Sketch elevation of Ananiuliak Island 10 23. Mounds on Kavalga Island 26 24. Red-faced cormorant 57 25. Rough-legged hawk 108 26. Black oystercatcher 131 27. Aleutian rock sandpiper 143 28. Least sandpiper 148 29. Least sandpipers 149 30. Glaucous-winged gulls 166 31. Black-legged kittiwakes 176 32. Colony of Pallas's thick-billed murres on Bogoslof Island 184 33. Pallas's thick-billed murres 185 34. Kittlitz's murrelet 189 35. Ancient murrelet 190 36. Crested auklets 196 37. Least auklets 197 38. Least auklet 199 39. Horned puffins 203 40. Tufted puffins 204 41. Aleutian song sparrow 255 42. Sea otter 279 43. Blue fox 294 INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38, by Victor B. Scheffer Page Introduction 365 Marine algae 367 Marine invertebrates 370 Sponges 370 Coelenterates 370 Hydroids 370 Jellyfishes 370 Flatwoi-ms 371 Roundworms 371 Nemertean worms 371 Brachiopods 371 Annelid worms 371 Echinoderms 372 Brittle stars 372 Starfishes 372 Sea urchins • 373 Sea cucumbers 375 Crustaceans 375 Copepods 375 Barnacles 376 Amphipods 377 Isopods 379 Shrimps 379 Hermit crabs 379 Anomuran crabs 381 Other crabs 381 Mollusks 381 Bivalves 381 Snails and sea slugs 383 Chitons 385 Devilfishes 386 Fresh-water invertebrates 387 Ci'ustaceans 391 Cladocerans 391 Copepods 391 Ostracods 391 Mollusks 391 Land invertebrates 392 Mollusks 392 Beetles 392 Bird lice 393 Diptera 393 ^ ers ::::::::::: 395 Fishes Literature cited 406 xi ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Papce 1. Fucus, a brown seaweed 368 2. Calcareous algae of the Lithothamnion group 368 3. The 5-rayed starfish Asterias amurensis 373 4. Twenty-rayed starfish, Pycnopodia helianthoides 374 5. Green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis 375 6. Rock barnacles, Balanus sp 376 7. Two species of barnacles 377 8. Parasitic amphipod P a/racy amus boopis 378 9. Common crab, Cancer magister 380 10. King crab, Paralithodes sp 380 11. Mussels, Mytilus edulis 382 12. Limpets, Acmaea sp 384 13. Periwinkles, Littorina sp 385 14. Fresh-water pool, type 1 (small and clear) 387 15. Fresh-water pool, type 2 (small and weedy) 388 16. Fresh-water pool, type 3 (large and barren) 389 17. Alaska cod, Gadus macrocephalus 396 18. Red sculpin, Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus 397 19. Irish lord, Hemilepidotus jordani 398 20. Halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis 399 21. Pogie, Lebius superciliosus 400 22. Pink salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha 401 23. Native boy netting sockeye salmon 402 24. Red or sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka 402 25. Atka mackerel, Pleurogrammus monopterygius 403 26. Silver hake, Tneragra chalcogramma 404 XII Foreword This report is based on a biological survey of most of the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula in 1936 and 1937. The report was largely prepared soon after the survey, but for various reasons it has not been practical to publish it until now. Even in manuscript form, this material has been con- sulted frequently, and it is issued now in the North American Fauna series so as to make more accessible information on one of North America's most significant biogeographic regions. While the report was being readied for publication, the fifth edition of the Check-List of North American Birds ap- peared (American Ornithologists' Union 1957). Throughout the report, scientific and common names of birds have been made to conform to the new Check-List, but generally refer- ences to "the A. 0. U. Check-List," without specification, are to the fourth (1931) edition. Scientific names of mammals have been made to conform in general to the List of North American Recent Mammals (Miller and Kellogg 1955) ; com- mon names of mammals for the most part follow Hall (1957) . The Pinnipeds conform to the nomenclature of Scheffer (1958). No attempt has been made to include references to all recent publications on the Aleutian and Alaskan fauna; references included are those from which data were obtained for this report. 0. J. MURIE May 1959 XIII The Brown Bear in the Aleutians. Carlisle Island rising above the fog. XIV FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA By Olaus J. Murie, Biologist Introduction The Aleutian Islands, treeless, fog-bound, and volcanic, extend westward from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula for about 1,100 miles to Attu, which is less than 600 miles from the Kamchatka Peninsula of Asia. The Aleutian Islands Wildlife Reserva- tion, now a National Wildlife Refuge, was established on this chain in 1913. This reservation embraces the islands of the Aleu- tian chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. These islands were set apart as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds, for the propagation of reindeer and fur-bearing animals, and for the encouragement and development of fisheries. In 1920, the United States Bureau of Biological Survey l was given the responsibility of enforcement of the Alaska fur laws and administration of the blue-fox industry in the Aleutians. As time went on, it became apparent that proper supervision of this important wildlife refuge would necessitate an extensive inven- tory of the resources of these islands. In 1936, assisted by Cecil S. Williams of the Bureau of Biologi- cal Survey, I was assigned to make the necessary investiga- tions. The motorship Brown Bear was placed at our disposal, and H. Douglas Gray and Homer Jewell, both of the Alaska Game Commission, joined us at Juneau. A second season was required for the work, and, in 1937, Victor B. Scheffer, John H. Steenis, H. Douglas Gray, and I made up the scientific party. During these two seasons we visited every Aleutian island of any size, as well as many islands south of the Alaska Peninsula and several points on the Peninsula, including Bristol Bay and the Nelson Island region of the Bering Sea coast. In 1938, Scheffer returned i Now a part of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE with the Brown Bear for another season's work. He made limited studies of the lesser forms of animal life that inhabit the sub- arctic waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea and those that occupy the shores and slopes of the islands. Our work, and the work of Scheffer, expanded upon informa- tion obtained by biologists who visited the area late in the 19th century and early in the 20th century. In 1902, W. H. Osgood, for the Bureau of Biological Survey, conducted an expedition to the base of the Alaska Peninsula. Results of his field work were published as "A Biological Reconnaissance of the Base of the Alaska Peninsula" (North American Fauna Series No. 24: 1904). In 1911, Alexander Wetmore and A. C. Bent investigated the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and some of the Aleutian Islands (Wetmore's field report was never published). In the summer of 1925, assisted by Fur Warden Donald H. Stevenson, I was assigned to field work at the western end of the Alaska Peninsula. Additional investigators who visited the Aleutians include Lucien M. Turner and William H. Dall (in the 19th cen- tury), and Ira N. Gabrielson (in the 20th century). In the present report, references are made to all individuals who are known to have contributed to the knowledge of the fauna of the Aleutian Islands. These individual contributions total into a considerable volume of data that have been of inestimable help in evaluating the Aleutian fauna. In view of this assemblage of data, and for a better understanding of the fauna of this part of Alaska, the present report embraces all of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. In compiling the material presented here, and in gathering the field data, I am indebted to my colleagues in the field on all three expeditions — 1925, 1936, and 1937. These colleagues, already mentioned — Stevenson, Williams, Scheffer, Steenis, Gray, and Jewell — are men whose zeal for research and loyalty to the joint undertaking must ensure success of an expedition. John Selle- vold, veteran seaman and captain of the Brown Bear, went beyond the requirements of his duty to help us in many ways. John W. Aldrich and Allen J. Duvall, both of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, have been especially helpful with advice and assistance in working with specimens. Herbert Friedmann, of the National Museum, has also helped considerably, and Ira N. Gabrielson, who has made many trips to the Aleutian district, has been especially generous with his field notes. Many others, both in Washington and in the field, assisted in many ways. Also, I must pay tribute to those original inhabitants of tne FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 3 Aleutians, the Aleuts, who as a race have suffered many vicissi- tudes through earlier contacts with white men. Those with whom we associated were eager to help with information. It is with special affection that I recall the friendly cooperation of Mike Hodikoff, Chief of Attu village, who was ready to do anything to further the work of our expeditions and to add to our knowl- edge. He, with his village, was captured by Japanese invasion forces during World War II ; there is no knowledge of his fate. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands (see fig. 1) form a great arc that swings across the northern seas for about 1,500 miles, almost to Siberia. The Aleutian chain alone is about 1,100 miles long. This arc, together with the Commander Islands, forms a barrier that separates the Bering Sea from the North Pacific Ocean. The Alaska Peninsula extends southwestward from about latitude 59° N., and Amatignak Island, the southernmost of the Aleutians, lies nearly as far south as latitude 51° N.— the same latitude as the north end of Vancouver Island. The north shore of the Alaska Peninsula shelves off gradually into the shallow waters of Bering Sea, forming a low coastal plain with a comparatively even coastline. However, farther in- land the land rises to the rugged volcanic Aleutian Range, which runs the length of the Peninsula, and, on the south side, breaks off into the deeper water of the North Pacific. Accordingly, the south shore is irregular and rugged with bays and headlands and offshore rocks and is fringed by offshore islands — notably the Kodiak-Afognak, Semidi, Shumagin, and Sanak Island groups, as well as a number of smaller ones. The eastern Aleutians retain some of the characteristics of the Alaska Peninsula. This is most pronounced on Unimak Island, which has a low coastal plain, lagoons, and rugged interior moun- tains that extend southward to the Pacific Ocean. In fact, Unimak Island is separated from the Peninsula by only a narrow strait. Numerous eruptions have been recorded since the discovery of these islands, and the Aleutian chain proper consists of over 70 named islands, some small, others large; Unimak is about 70 miles long. The chain is irregular and is bordered on the north and south sides by deep oceanic troughs. In other words, the south border of the shallow Bering Sea bottom, which is virtually a continental shelf, veers off northwestward so as to leave deep waters north of the Aleutian chain. As Stephen R. Capps (1934, p. 143) has stated, 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 5 A line of soundings taken by the fathometer on the Gannet in 1932, ex- tending along an irregular course from a point north of Amukta Pass to Attu Island, at varying distances from the intervening islands, shows that north of the islands the 1,000 fathom line lies close to the island festoon and that at a distance of 50 miles or more from them there is a remarkably smooth-floored depression at a depth of 2,000 to 2,200 fathoms. The shape of this depression between the islands and the continental mass, which includes much of Bering Sea, is not known, but it is significant that the island arc rises as a sharp ridge separating deeps of 2,000 fathoms or more both to the north and south. The volcanic nature of this region is well known. Capps (1934, p. 142) says, Throughout the Alaska Peninsula the volcanoes have broken out through older sedimentary or igneous rocks, by which they are now flanked. In the Aleutian Islands there are few if any exposures of the basement rocks, and the islands are largely constructional, having been built up to and above sea level by the accumulation of lavas and volcanic fragmental material ejected from below. Many volcanoes along this remarkable arc are still in an active state. The eruption of Katmai Volcano, on the Alaska Peninsula, in 1912 was one of the great volcanic spectacles of modem times (see Griggs 1922). The activities of Bogoslof Island and Mount Shishaldin on Unimak Island are well known, and in 1930 there was an eruption on Gareloi Island. On our visit there in 1937 we examined some of the small craters, from which were issuing steam and other gases, and. we noted many lava bombs on the lower slopes. We found several typical hot thermal springs that were rimmed with algae. On Kagamil Island, noisy steam jets issued from a rocky bluff, and rumblings could be heard under the boulder beach. After our return from the expedition of 1937, we learned that there had been an eruption on Yunaska Island while we had been exploring other areas. Many of the mountains have plumes of steam issuing from the top. Mount Cleveland, on Chuginadak Island, erupted in 1944, and Okmok and Umnak Islands erupted in 1945. As would be expected, most of the islands are mountainous. There are a few relatively flat islands, such as Amchitka, Agattu, and Semichi. However, there is a low mountain range along one side of Agattu, and there is a small mountain at one end of Alaid Island, in the Semichis. Most of the larger islands have lakes and streams, and several, such as Amchitka, Agattu, and the Semichis, are dotted with lakes. In keeping with their volcanic origin, some of these islands have notable lava beds that furnish nesting crevices for petrels and auklets, as on Amukta and Gareloi. Other islands, notably Ogliuga and part of Kavalga, 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE have been covered with volcanic ash in recent times. 'The shore- lines are irregular, with offshore islets, rocks, and undersurface reefs, and there are boulder beaches, sandy beaches, and abrupt cliffs in great variety. The accompanying field sketches, (see figs. 2-22) showing a few of the islands in profile, suggest the variety of configuration. Figure 2. — Semichi Islands from mountain on Alaid Island (June 1937). Note that a narrow spit connects Alaid, in foreground, with the middle island ; Shemya, the easternmost, is in the distance. Figure 3. — Sketch elevation of Agattu Island, seen from west end of Alaid Island, looking southwesterly. Figure 4. — Sketch elevation of Buldir Island, looking southeast. AMCHITKA (WEST END) .RAT KISKA (N. END) CHUGUL DAVIDOF LITTLE SITKIN Figure 5. — Sketch elevation of several Aleutian Islands, looking west. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 7 PYRAMID DAVIDOF Figure 6. — Sketch elevation of three Aleutian Islands from Gunner Cove on Rat Island, looking northerly. Figure 7. — Little Sitkin Island from Gunner Cove on Rat Island, looking northeasterly. Figure 8. — Sketch elevation of Rat Island from southeast end of Khvostof Island, looking southerly. Vsv . . . . (( ( i f ( i ( / ,( Mlf<]?hN-^mTT7T Tn >^T7nTTrnTTTfT7^^ I llKi I Figure 9.— West end of Rat Island (July 1937). Kiska Island in distance. 8 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 10. — West end of Rat Island (July 1937) from beach on south shore. Figure 11. — Southeast end of Rat Island (June 1937). Figure 12. — Sketch elevation of Semisopochnoi Island seen from west end of Amchitka, looking 1 northeasterly. Low fog bank on horizon. Figure 13. — Sketch elevation of West Unalaga Island, looking westward. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 9 Figure 14.— Sketch elevation of Ilak Island, looking southerly. Figure 15.— Sketch elevation of Kavalga Island from West Unalga Island, looking easterly. Figure 16. — Sadatanak Island looking easterly. $!£z^ iiiiimiii^ r Figure 17. — Sagchudak Island looking easterly. Figure 18. — Sketch elevation of Bobrof Island, looking southwesterly. Figure 19. — Anagaksik Island, looking southeasterly. Figure 20. — Sketch elevations of Kasatochi Island and Koniuji Island, looking west. 10 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ^ta^SPwB^ iO'itihAiJi—- it* 'iti>'. li:.". ."■■■■ n m «;i ■.■>.,■»■■_ "ii'Huiiiim , 'W'l'i'uii '."!'.'.JHmv" a> ...mi "■■.•.. ..itfiifi Figure 21. — Seguam Island, looking south-southwest. fiSiMM Figure 22. — Sketch elevation of Ananiuliak Island, looking southerly. Umnak Island in background. CLIMATE The Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula are south of the severe low winter temperatures of interior and northern Alaska, and the surrounding waters are generally free of sea ice. To characterize winter conditions briefly : temperatures go well be- low freezing, fresh-water ponds freeze over at times, and snow sometimes piles knee deep. But the snow is likely to be wet and slushy, and there will be some bare ground. At higher elevations, however, snow is heavier, and the higher mountains are snowcapped in winter. A few temperature records from Turner (1886), with notes on clear days, are of interest: Temperature (°F.) Number of— Month Mean Maximum Minimum Clear days Fair days UN ALASKA, 1878-79 September ... 48.02 55 36 October 40.77 49 26 November 33.50 48 21 1 December _ . . 35.12 45 19 2 January 33 . 97 48 20 1 2 February 29.25 44 t 1 1 March... 32.16 49 15 8 April. . 33.07 52 21 i ATKA, 1879 May. .... 39.90 65 30 June. .... 42.08 64 30 2 July 48.96 65 38 2 4 August . . .... 50.31 69 45 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA. PENINSULA 11 ATTLl, 1 880-81 July August September October __ November December. January. . February _ March... . April Mav 52.35 66 51.56 66 47 . 75 58 41.12 49 35.45 46 33 91 44 31.17 42 31.95 41 29 02 41 36.70 52 39.55 49 42 38 36 30 25 22 17 17 11 26 31 5 3 6 1 1 3 5 6 4 4 1 6 8 7 3 1 Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed birds on Attu Island from February 20 to March 18, 1945. They report, The air temperatures at sea level did not vary much from freezing as a rule. During the daylight hours it sank somewhat below 32° F. on 20 of the 27 days, climbed as high as 38° during the day on March 4, sank as low as 15° during the night on March 15, and averaged 31°. On March 18 the greatest temperature variation (15° to 31°), as well as the lowest temperature, was recorded. The general aspect was wintry: the sky over- cast, the wind raw, the sea turbulent. Highlands and lowlands alike were covered with snow. Along the shore, tufts of rank grass and coarse stalks of wild parsnip protruded from the drifts, and boulders, turfy mounds and narrow gray beaches were always bare. Elsewhere, save for an occasional cliff or exposed slope, everything was white. A striking feature of the Aleutian climate is the prevalence of foggy or cloudy weather, the abundance of rain in summer, and the frequent violent winds that arise suddenly and un- expectedly. On western Alaska Peninsula, in 1925, we built a windbreak of alder brush to protect our tent, and, on the beach, light gravel occasionally would be blown into our faces. Briefly, then, one might say that although the temperature is mild— neither very low in winter nor very high in summer— there is a minimum of sunshine and a maximum of fog, rain, and storm. ENVIRONMENT AND BIOTIC DISTRIBUTION The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, stretching as a land bridge between two continents, present a most interesting distribution of plant and animal life. There are, of course, a number of physical facts that bear on the distribution of animals and plants— including the location of the area with relation to that of other significant areas, the geologic history, the physio- graphic conformation of the land, the ocean currents, and the temperature, humidity, and other climatic influences. 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE GEOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC INFLUENCES The Aleutian district lies within the Boreal region, and it may be identified as the southern fringe of this great circumpolar area throughout which life has so much in common. It is significant that the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands lie, in a sense, almost isolated from the mainland of Alaska and extend westward a tremendous distance toward Kamchatka, thus, in some respects, serving as a "bridge" between Asia and North America. It is also significant that they are near the other intercontinental bridge at Bering Strait, which is recognized as having an important influence on our biota. The Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula are of comparatively recent geologic origin. Volcanic activity is still prevalent, and changes in the surface of the land are still taking place. For this reason, and for reasons mentioned later, the area has a new and changing environment that has not yet been fully occupied by flora or fauna to the extent of its potential capacity. Thus, the area presents an opportunity to see immigration still taking place and to note the changes imposed on the newcomers by an unusual environment. As the following sections show, the Aleutian biota is drawing its members from several directions. As would be expected, some have come directly from Asia ; some have come from the north on the Alaskan side; others have come from the southeast along the Pacific coast; and still others are part of the fauna that appears to have developed in the Bering Sea region — an area roughly bounded by Siberia, mainland Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. Many others are drawn from biotic populations that at present are so widely distributed in the Palaearctic region that it is impossible to judge the direction from which they entered the Aleutian area. Following, are some of these groups that have contributed to the Aleutian biota : ASIATIC IMMIGRANTS BIRDS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Branta nigricans Black brant Mareca penelope European widgeon Anas crecca ssp Common teal Haliaetus albiciUa White-tailed sea eagle Haliaetus pelagicus Steller's sea eagle Falco rusticolus uralensis Asiatic gyrfalcon Charadrius dubius curonicus Little ringed plover FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 13 Charadrius semipahnatus Semipalmated plover Pluvialis dominica fulva American golden plover Arenaria interpres interpres Ruddy turnstone Tringa glareola Wood sandpiper Erolia acuminata Sharp-tailed sandpiper Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus Glaucous gull Lams schistisagus Slaty-backed gull Lanes argentatus vegae Herring gull Larus ridibundus sibiricus Black-headed gull Sterna aleutica Aleutian tern Aethia pygmaea Whiskered auklet Cuculus saturatus horsfieldi Oriental cuckoo Luscinia calliope camtschatkensis Siberian rubythroat Troglodytes troglodytes ssp. (in part) Winter wrens Motacilla alba lugens White wagtail Emberiza rustica latifascia Rustic bunting MAMMALS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME A lopex lagopus Blue fox Ursus arctos gyas Brown bear Ursus arctos middendorffi Brown bear Some of these are only occasional visitors, such as the two eagles mentioned, and Larus schistisagus (slaty-backed gull), Larus ridibundus sibiricus (black-headed gull), Cuculus saturatus horsfieldi (oriental cockoo), and some others. Some have become established in the Aleutians, such as Anas crecca (common teal), Aethia pygmaea (whiskered auklet), and Sterna aleutica (Aleu- tian tern), and Alopex lagopus (blue fox). Others have reached the Alaskan coast in general, including the Aleutian district, but not necessarily by the Aleutian route, such as Falco rusticolus uralensis (Asiatic gyrfalcon), Pluvialis dominica fulva (Ameri- can golden plover), and the big brown bears. Some, such as Charadrius semipalmatus (semipalmated plover) and Branta nigricans (black brant), have extended eastward considerably beyond the Alaskan Peninsula but show greater affinity with Asiatic populations than with those farther east in North Ameri- ca. In the case of the winter wrens, Troglodytes troglodytes, the origin appears to have been from Asia and from the southeast. Of course, the bears came by the more remote northern route. Plants, too, have begun the long traverse over from Asia. In the case of plants which occur widely on both sides of Bering Strait, and which have become established all the way through the Aleutian chain, it is difficult to know the direction from which their immigration took place. There are some plants that, according to Hulten's distribution maps (1937a), have obtained 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE a foothold in the western Aleutians but have not been observed to the east, even though some of them also occur on the Alaskan mainland. Concerning the plant distribution, Hulten (1937a, p. 44) stated, If Commander Islands and westernmost Alaska Penin. are included, as in this flora, 92 America species reach that area, but 47 of them do not go further westward than to Umnak. 49 species reach the Aleutians from the west but not other parts of southern Alaska. 40 of them do not reach further eastwards than to the westernmost group of the Aleutians. Some of the prominent Asiatic forms that we observed in the westernmost Aleutians are Cirsium kamtschaticum, Veratrum album oxysepalum, Cacalia ariculata, and Sorbus sambucifolia. These are confined to the Near Islands, though some are thought to have reached as far east as Buldir. Hulten says further, "The flora of the middle Aleutians is very depauperated, probably due to the relatively short time elapsed since the glacial period, when most of their plants were exterminated." Only the more obvious Asiatic elements are mentioned here. Other animal and plant forms probably originated in Siberia at a more remote time. BERING SEA AVIFAUNA The following birds represent a group largely confined to the coastal parts of Bering Sea, although some of them range farther north or south. They appear to be characteristic of all shores of the Bering Sea, instead of the Siberian side exclusively. SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Phalacrocorax pelagieus pelagicus Pelagic cormorant Phalacrocorax urile Red-faced cormorant Branta canadensis minima Canada goose Philacte canagica Emperor goose Anas crecca nimia Common teal Polysticta stelleri Steller's eider Arenaria melanocephala Black turnstone Numenius tahitiensis Bristle-thighed curlew Erolia ptilocnemis ssp Rock sandpiper Limosa lapponica baueri Bar-tailed godwit Rissa tridactyla pollicaris Black-legged kittiwake Rissa brevirostris Red-legged kittiwake Xema sabini woznesenskii Sabine's gull Uria lomvia arra Thick-billed murre Brachyramphus brevirostre Kittlitz's murrelet Cyclorrhynchus psittacula Parakeet auklet Aethia cristatella Crested auklet FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 15 Aethia pusilla . Least auklet Fratercula corniculata Horned puffin Phylloscopus borealis kennicotti Arctic warbler Motacilla flava tschutschensis Yellow wagtail Plectrophenax hyperboreus McKay's bunting FAUNA OF WIDER NORTHERN DISTRIBUTION BIRDS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Gavia arctica jxtcifica Arctic loon Gavia stellata Red-throated loon Olor columbianus ... . Whistling swan Branta canadensis leucopareia Canada goose Anser albifrons frontalis White-fronted goose Clangula hyemalis Oldsquaw Somateria mollis sima v. nigra Common eider Bnteo lagopus s.johannis Rough-legged hawk Falco rusticolns obsoleteus Gyrf alcon Lagopus lagopus ssp Willow ptarmigan Lagopus mutus ssp Rock ptarmigan Erolia alpina pacifica Dunlin Ereunetus sp Sandpipers Phalaropus fulicarius Red phalarope Lobipes lobatus Northern phalarope Stercorarius sp Jaegers Larus hyperboreus barrovianus Glaucous gull Stoma paradisaea Arctic tern Parus atricapillus turneri Black-capped chickadee Pants hudsonicus hudsonicus Boreal chickadee Turdus migratoi'ius migratorius American robin Hylocichla minima minima Gray-cheeked thrush Acanthis sp Redpolls Junco hyemalis hyemalis Slate-colored junco Passerella iliaca zaboria Fox sparrow Calcarius lapponicus alascensis Lapland longspur Plectrophenax yiivalis ssp Snow bunting MAMMALS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Sorex tundrensis Tundra saddle-backed shrew Citellus sp Ground squirrels Dicrostonyx sp. . . Collared lemmings Microtus oeconomus ssp Meadow mice Lepus othus poadromus Arctic hare Rangifer arcticus granti Barren ground caribou Delphinapterus leucas Beluga These are some of the more northern birds and mammals whose distribution with relation to the Alaska Peninsula is such that 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE they probably immigrated southward or southwestward to the Aleutian district. There are, of course, a great many others of northerly distribution whose general range is such that the route of the population movement is uncertain. In the group here listed it will be seen that the Aleutian district has drawn heavily from the fauna that characterizes the northern portion of the continent from northern Alaska across to Hudson Bay. Lemmings, Arctic hares, the jaegers, Sabine's gull, and others, came straight down the Bering Sea coastal strip. It will be noted that not all of the birds just listed actually nest in the Aleutian district. SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN AVIFAUNA SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Phalacrocorax auritus cincinatus Double-crested cormorant Olor buccinator Trumpeter swan Anas strepera Gadwall Lams glaucescens Glaucous-winged gull Brachyramphus marmoratum marmoratum Marbled murrelet Synthliboramphus antiquum, Ancient murrelet Ptychoramphus aleutica Cassin's auklet Cerorhinca monocerata Rhinoceros auklet Megaceryle alcyon caurina Belted kingfisher Troglodytes troglodytes ssp. (in part) Winter wren Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush Vermivora celata lutescens Orange-crowned warbler Pinicola enucleator flammula Pine grosbeak Leucosticte tephrocotis ssp Gray-crowned rosy finch Loxia curvirostris sitkensis . . Red crossbill Passerculus sandwizhensis ssp Savannah sparrow Passerella iliaca ssp Fox sparrow Melospiza melodia ssp Song sparrow Some of these listings give us a clear demonstration of the route of influx into the Aleutian district, by way of closely related subspecies in a series extending along the coastal strip of southern and southeastern Alaska. Such examples are the song sparrows, fox sparrows, and winter wrens in particular. The fox sparrows present an interesting distributional picture. It is the dark coastal unalaschcensis group that has worked along the coast and fully occupied the suitable habitats as far as the eastern Aleutians. But the bright-colored eastern type has come down from the northeast and, at the base of Alaska Peninsula, this type has made contact with the coastal forms. Naturally, there could be error in the interpretation of faunal immigration just cited, because complexities may have intervened FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 17 since the territory in question was "opened for settlement" ; how- ever, the conclusions submitted are based on strong probability at least. It will be seen that the coastal mountain masses of southern Alaska and the Alaska Range form a barrier. Although this is not an absolute barrier, presumably it is enough of an obstacle that the way of least resistance would be north and west along the coast for some species. Similarly, there is an easy avenue southward along the open Bering Sea coast for tundra-loving forms. And the Aleutian chain, reaching out close to Siberia, is an inviting route. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE There are some striking environmental influences operative in the Aleutian district. We know, of course, that humid regions tend to produce dark pigmentation, and this fact holds true for this area. The rosy finches reach their darker hues in the Aleu- tian area, with the darkest in the Pribilofs. The fox sparrows show the same tendency, exceeded in dark tones only by the populations of the excessively humid Pacific rain-forest zone that extends from the coast and islands of southeastern Alaska, south- ward to the northwest coast of the United States. Except for the aberrant yellow types in the middle Aleutians, the darkest rock ptarmigans are found in the Aleutian area, especially on Attu and the Commanders. Here, parasitic jaegers are, and the Arctic foxes are, almost entirely in the dark-color phase. In primitive times, silver foxes were unusually plentiful somewhere in this district, judging by the cargoes of the first Russian traders. The lemmings, Dicrostonyx, of Unalaska and Umnak do not ac- quire a white pelage in winter. This is also a region of giantism. Note the huge size of the song sparrows, Savannah sparrows, and rosy finches, which, as genera, reach their greatest size in the Aleutians and Commander Islands. Here, the Aleutian winter wrens, as a group, have de- veloped unusually long bills. Here, too, we may include the Alaska brown bear, which achieves its greatest size on the Alaska Penin- sula, Unimak Island, and Kodiak Island. Marine biologists have found that in many instances the in- vertebrate subspecies in the northern Pacific waters, and even farther north, are strikingly larger than forms of the same species farther to the south. This invites interesting speculation. As pointed out later, the Aleutian waters are unusually rich in plankton, and there is an abundant and varied marine inverte- 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE brate fauna. An exceptionally nutritious marine food source should influence the vigor and size of the terrestrial vertebrates of that region. The song sparrow's habitat in the Aleutians is the beach, and it is probable that its food is largely of marine origin — the small beach crustaceans, for example. Some other land birds, such as winter wrens and pipits, feed to some extent on the beach. The blue foxes feed chiefly on marine life. The case of the Alaska brown bears is not so clear, though for a part of the summer they comb the beaches and live extensively on salmon, which are nourished in the sea. One wonders, also, if a certain type of food may, with other factors, help to encourage melanism (as in the jaeger), or darker shades of color, as in some of the other birds. It is generally accepted that a humid habitat produces dark coloration. It is not certain that this tendency, as well as melanism, is encouraged by rich food. This is, of course, pure speculation, yet the significance of a food chain from the sea to the higher vertebrates on the adjacent land may be worthy of earnest study. There are many birds that have not responded to environmental influence. The Aleutian song sparrow has not developed dark pigmentation to an unusual de- gree. The northern form of the fork-tailed petrel, though averag- ing larger in the Aleutians, apparently is paler than those in southeastern Alaska. Also, it must be considered that the in- terior Alaska and Yukon caribou, as well as the Alaskan moose, which have no direct connection with the sea, are the largest on this continent. But these examples suggest that there is some- thing in the environment — favorable food, humidity, or other stimuli — that tends to produce dark pigmentation and large size. This is an important challenge to future investigation and understanding. ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION By the usual standards of life-zone allocation, the Alaska Pen- insula and Aleutian Islands would fall chiefly in the Arctic Zone. A part of the Kodiak-Afognak Island group supports tree growth, and forests encroach on the base of Alaska Peninsula to the vicinity of Mount Katmai. Therefore, these locations would mark the limit of the Hudsonian Zone. However, we find the life-zone classification here to be far from simple. There are probably a number of physiographic and oceanic reasons for this situation. There are serious difficulties in the interpretation of life zones in the Aleutians that should be considered. The lack of trees FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 19 presumably would indicate some form of Arctic or Alpine Life Zone. So far as latitude is concerned, the southernmost island of the Aleutian chain, Amatignak, lies not far north of 51° N., which is the latitude of heavily timbered, coastal British Columbia in the vicinity of Vancouver Island ; however, the treeless Aleu- tians lie hundreds of miles south of the tree limit in the Brooks Range of interior Alaska. Some of the lowest temperatures in Alaska are recorded from the timbered interior, while the temperatures in the Aleutians are uniformly higher in winter, and the adjacent seas are not frozen over. From the standpoint of vegetation growth, summer temperatures are probably of greater significance than winter temperatures, and probably do not show so great a variation. Certainly the temperatures aver- age much lower and have a lower maximum in summer than temperatures found in the forested continental areas. Wind is another factor that generally accompanies treelessness at high altitudes and latitudes. There is a treeless coastal strip bordering the Bering Sea, with few interruptions, from Alaska Peninsula to Bering Strait, continuing around to the treeless Arctic coast. This coastal area is characterized by strong winds, as contrasted with the comparative stillness of the interior. We know the effect of wind on tree growth at timberline in moun- tains. In the Aleutians, I found many instances where the wind had scoured out the soil, exposing the roots of such ground- hugging plants as crowberry and dwarf willow. If wind is one of the factors that establish the edge of forests, it is operative to an unusual degree in the Aleutians. Forest growth is another important factor to be considered in the Aleutian district. Attention is invited to the series of pub- lications on Alaskan flora by Robert F. Griggs (see bibliog- raphy) — particularly his 1934 report on the edge of the forest, in which he has assembled numerous data to show that the edge of the forest has been advancing in Alaska. This was particu- larly evident on Kodiak Island and in the Katmai region, where Dr. Griggs worked intensively. According to Griggs' studies, we may reason that, since the last glaciation, climate or a combina- tion of other factors has been gradually improving the area toward suitability for forest growth. The forest, however, has not been able to migrate fast enough to keep pace with favorable climatic conditions and has not reached its potential limit. Where, then, is the limit of the potential climax forest growth? At the end of the Alaska Peninsula? Farther west? On Mer- riam's life zone map, the Hudsonian Zone is shown extending the 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE length of Alaska Peninsula. Spruce trees that were planted on Unalaska Island grew, but did not spread. It may be significant that tall willows, alders, and tall salmonberry have extended westward as far as Unimak Island in heavy thicket form. Here, salmonberry thickets are similar to those seen in southeastern Alaska. These facts may be indicative of a territory ripe for a forest. And such an advance line, based on climatic limitations rather than on the present position of the forest edge, may be considered to be the boundary of the Hudsonian Life Zone. The biome concept, to rely strictly on the climax end product, would have the same difficulty here, and published maps of the Tundra Biome and the Tundra-Coniferous Forest Ecotone for this area would simply substitute these terms for Arctic and Hudsonian Zones. There is the same potential boundary difficulty. Granted that in the Boreal Zone, at least, tree growth is di- rectly affected by the climatic factors usually associated with the life-zone concept, to what extent is the rest of the biota affected by the same influences? To what extent is it influenced by the mere presence of trees? It is reasonable to believe that the woody plants that comprise the understory of the Alaskan forest are, to a large extent, dependent on association with trees. Some forms, such as blueberries, often extend from open country into scattered forest. But there is a plant association that coincides with forest growth. Similarly, there is a fauna that has become specialized for forest habitat — woodpeckers, certain grouse, certain warblers, jays, squirrels, black bear, and many others. These appear to be limited by the mere presence of trees. There is good reason to believe that wapiti and other deer would have a much more northern distribution if it were not for the physical barrier of deep snow in winter. On the other hand, the red-backed mouse, the hermit thrush, and the chickadee have inhabited the length of Alaska Peninsula. It is possible to assume that these mobile woodland forms simply would not wait for the slow-moving for- est and thus have adapted themselves to more-open habitats than is normal for the species. Also, this would imply a less- specialized response to habitat than some of the other forest species, as well as a greater sensitivity to direct climatic stimuli. Birds and mammals are more or less adaptive and vary between wide extremes in tolerance of adverse elements in their environ- ment. However, there is a strong tendency for the majority of any population to be associated with the distribution of certain major vegetation types. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 21 One cannot escape the conviction that if we grant a certain degree of climatic influence on distribution of vegetation to cause it to fall into broad life zones, many of the birds and mammals that have become adapted to vegetation types will also tend to fall into these same life zones. These birds and mammals may be affected to a lesser extent by the life-zone climatic influences than by the indirect effects of these influences — the vegetation type of the habitat. It should be kept in mind that, in boreal regions, biotic units are not so clearly defined as in desert or semidesert areas. Griggs (1934c), writing on Arctic vegetation, says, In short every feature of Arctic vegetation, the anomalies in the geographi- cal distribution of arctic species, the occurrence of many species in all sorts of habitats, and their apparent indifference to the diverse conditions thereof, the lack of defmiteness to the composition of the plant cover in any particular habitat, the physical instability of the ground itself, the general ruderal character of arctic vegetation, the large number of our weeds which are native to the arctic — all these testify to an instability in arctic vegetation very different from the relatively stable plant forma- tions of the temperate zone. He states further that — First, combined with the demonstrated active migration of the Alaskan forest into the arctic, it gives definite support to the supposition that vegeta- tion there has not yet recovered from the glacial period but is still in process of active readjustment. This statement is applicable to the fauna as well, especially in the Aleutian district. Native rodents have only begun to en- croach on the Aleutian Islands. Savannah sparrows have gone only part way. Song sparrows have reached Attu, but fox spar- rows have gone only as far as Unimak. Foxes had started to enter the Aleutian chain from Alaska, as well as from Siberia, before man intentionally affected their distribution. Minute organisms that thrive unusually well in the cold waters of the northern seas have set up a food chain that developed a rich marine biota. This accounts for the presence of the fish, pinnipeds, whales, and sea otters that once inhabited these wa- ters so abundantly. Given such a good supply of food, with an abundance of ideal cliffs and lava beds and boulder beaches for nesting sites, it is logical that the present swarming seabird colonies have assembled in the Aleutians. There is much of the Arctic element in the Aleutians. In- deed, the Arctic and Alpine merge on these islands. The moun- tain-loving rosy finches and the Arctic snow bunting nest practically side by side, close to sea level. Alpine vegetation types 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE are not far above the level of the sea. But if we apply the term "Arctic" here, it must denote the "Low Arctic." The Aleutian district is unique. For animal life, it combines favorable climatic factors and unusual food resources. It is a focal point to which animal life has been coming from north and south, and east and west, and it is a melting pot for faunal elements from two continents that have not yet reached equilib- rium. It is necessary to keep in mind the fluid nature of the Aleutian biota in arriving at any system of zonal delineation. From a purely descriptive standpoint, the fauna of the Aleu- tian district stands apart, and it may well merit distinction as the "Aleutian Fauna." There may be good reason to consider it as a unit of a more comprehensive Bering Sea fauna. VEGETATION In 1937, Eric Hulten published (in Stockholm, Sweden) "Flora of the Aleutian Islands and Westernmost Alaska Peninsula with notes on the flora of Commander Islands." The same author has also published "Flora of Alaska and Yukon," in 10 parts, issued from 1941 to 1950. This work covers the botany of the Aleutian district so thoroughly that no detailed account of the vegetation need be attempted here, except for mention of some prominent plant associations and their distribution. The first consideration is the distribution of forests. The spruce-forest edge is found midway on Kodiak Island and in the general vicinity of Becharof Lake on Alaska Peninsula. We find elements of the flora, as well as some of the birds, converg- ing on the base of Alaska Peninsula from two directions. From the east, the Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) of southern Alaska has made its way to Kodiak Island at the base of Alaska Penin- sula, out to the region about Becharof Lake, and now it consti- tutes the principal forest growth in this area. The status of the white spruce (Picea glauca) is less certain, but this interior- Alaska tree has come down from the north to at least as far as Bristol Bay, near Nushagak, and it may be considered to have barely reached the border of Alaska Peninsula, inland from the coast. The birch (Betula kenaica) is associated with the conif- erous growth in all this forested area. With the exception of this meager forest, in all lowland por- tions of Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, and to some extent as far west as Unalaska, tall vegetation is in the form of shrub thickets — dwarf birch (Betula nana exilis), willow, and alder. Alder (Alnus crispa sinuata) is particularly prevalent and forms FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 23 heavy thickets. Hulten described a new form (Alnus cHspa laciniata) from Kodiak Island, and mentions Alnus incana as occurring in the Katmai district. Shrubby salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) is found in suitable places along the Alaska Penin- sula, and in the eastern Aleutians it is found as far as Unalaska Island. Beyond Unalaska, the vegetation is of the low type ; the willows are of the dwarf species, close to the ground, and we find no appreciable high-shrub growth until at the very end, on Attu Island. Attu Island possesses moderate shrubby and tall plants — largely those with Siberian affinities. Hulten (1937a) states: In the westernmost Aleutians, on Attu I., are found fragments of a high-grown vegetation similar to that growing in the upper subalpine belt on the open spots between the Alnus shrubs in Kamtchatka and along the Kamtchatka west coast. It is largely built up of Asiatic elements, which occur only on the westernmost islands, such as Cirsium kamtschaticum, Veratrum oxysepalum, Cacalia anriculata, Senecio palustris, and Sorbus sambucifolia, but it also includes elements occurring all over our area, such as Geranium erianthum, Streptopus amplexifolius, Calamagrostis Langsdorflii and others. Some plant communities may be distinguished readily. Through- out all the coastal areas of southwestern Alaska the sandy beaches are bordered with a rank growth of wild rye. In the Aleutian district, other members of the Elymus arenarius, or wild rye, association are Senecio pseudoarnican, (a groundsel), Lathyrus maritimus (beach pea), Honckenya peploides, and Mertensia maritima (sea bluebell). Within this association we found the low-to-ground Honckenya peploides generally pushing out near- est the water. In many places the leafy, bulky Senecio pseu- doamica formed vigorous patches that virtually left no room for other plants. The Aleuts used the tall, coarse beach rye, Elymus arenarius, for weaving the exquisite "Attu" baskets. Near the beach, but clinging to rocky sites, is Potentilla villosa, a herbaceous cinquefoil, which is associated with other plants. It is separate from the wild rye, or Elymus, association, though it is close to the tide, because its habitat is rock, not sand. Behind this beach-line association, on a somewhat drier area farther from the tide, was another zone of miscellaneous grasses, with some other plants. Here, we noted a dense stand of Poa, (blue grass), Calamagrostis (brown top), Bromus (brome), and other grasses that we did not observe closely ; however, we noted the demarcation between outer beach Elymus association and the adjacent inner zone of other grasses. The dividing line was not always located by a given distance 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE from the beach. I recall a striking instance where a sloping bank arose from the beach to a height of about 30 feet. Elymus, ex- posed to the sands of the sea, clung to the open face of this slope to the crest. At the exact point where the ground levelled off toward the interior, the other, more inland, grass formation began with a dense growth. The plants of this inner group bor- dering the Elymus association are by no means confined to the vicinity of the beach ; instead, they become diffused among other plants farther inland. Farther in the interior, and at higher elevations, we find what Hulten refers to as a "mosaic" of Alpine heath and meadow. Meadow formations have an abundance of Carex (sedge), to- gether with many other species, though sedges occur elsewhere as well. In these meadows are found Artemisia unalaschensis (a herbaceous sage), Epilobium angustifoliuyn (fireweed), Calamagrostis landsdorffi (a brown top), Geranium erianthum (geranium), Anaphalis margaritacea (pearly everlasting), Aconi- tum kamtschaticum (aconite) , Polygonum vivipar-um (viviparous knotweed), Trientalis (star flower), Bromus aleuticus (brome), Castilleja unalaschensis (paint brush), Arnica chamissonis (arnica), and Aster peregrinus (aster). Such a meadow asso- ciation, as defined by Hulten, is more characteristic of the east- ern Aleutians. Prominent patches of the characteristic cotton grass, Eriophorum, and Ranunculus (bitterroot), were found in many wet areas. Here and there, were found Geum (avens), Caltha (marsh marigold), Habenaria (rein orchis), Lupinus (lupine), Geranium (geranium), and a botanical list too long to enumerate. In the more exposed situations above the meadows, scattered in accordance with the character of the terrain, are the heaths. Here, are lichens, mosses, crowberry (Empetrum, nigrum), and cranberry, (Vaccinium uliginosum) . Numerous other plants are distributed rather indiscriminately. The showy anemone (Anem- one narcissiflora) , so prominent when in bloom, is very common. Mention should be made of Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip) and Coelopleurum gmelini (seacoast angelica). These robust plants grow throughout the Aleutian district, apparently where soil is rich. They are particularly conspicuous, together with other plants, on old Aleut village sites where the soil has been enriched by refuse from human habitation. Such village sites, seen at a distance, were recognizable by the deep-green, heavy vegetation. On some occasions we would note a particularly green high FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 25 mountain slope where we would find a colony of auklets nesting among rock crevices. We came to the tentative conclusion that vegetation grew more luxuriantly on the site of such bird colonies as a result of fertilization by bird guano and waste food. This vegetation was not necessarily of the same species as those grow- ing on the Aleut village sites ; however, the reasons for its pres- ence in the two instances may have been related. We did not have opportunity to study in detail the recovery of vegetation on islands recently covered by volcanic ash, as Griggs (1936) has done at Katmai and at Kodiak. However, little flat Ogliuga Island would furnish such an opportunity. In 1930, there was an eruption on Gareloi, and the ash from the erup- tion covered Ogliuga. At the time of our visits in 1936 and 1937, vegetation was just beginning to recover. Tall vigorous clumps of coarse sedges, Carex, and some Juncus, had pushed up through the ash here and there. These clumps had caught some of the drifting ash driven by the wind, had pushed up higher to clear the ash, and in turn had caught more wind-driven ash, until mounds had been created which were similar to sand dunes. In the north are found the so-called bird mounds, whose origin has caused much speculation. One theory is that birds such as gulls and jaegers, repeatedly alighting on a small prominence, fertilize the spot, thus causing exuberant vegetative growth — a process that continues until a tall mound is formed. On nearby Kavalga Island, I found that a part of the area nearest to Ogliuga evidently also had been in the path of an ash fall from a volcanic eruption, probably not so heavy a fall as that which covered Ogliuga. Some typical "bird mounds" on Kavalga were carefully dis- sected, with the result shown in the accompanying diagram. In figure 23, parts a and b, two such mounds show (by dark spots) the wearing away, or undercutting, by wind erosion. Also, note the wind erosion on the side in the diagrammatic section of an- other mound, as shown in part c. Part c shows, in cross section, the layers of materials in one of these bird mounds. Note that the first layer under the vegeta- tion consists of lava sand, or ash. Beneath the first layer are the alternating layers, in increasing width toward the center, of black soil and rotted moss. This was, of course, a fairly crude field examination, with no opportunity for more precise analysis of materials. But the drifting volcanic ash on nearby Ogliuga, pil- ing up in mounds around the pioneering clumps of vegetation, suggested a process that may also have operated on Kavalga 26 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 23. — Mounds on Kavalga Island (July 1937). a and b, undisturbed mounds, c, cross-section of a mound: 1, wind erosion to black soil; 2, vegetation on surface; 3, lava sand 2 1 A incbes; 4, black earth % inch; 5, rotted moss 1% inches; 6, black earth % inch; 7, rotted moss 2 inches; 8, black earth 1 inch; 9, rotted moss 2V 2 inches; 10, black earth 4V 2 inches; 11, rotted moss 12 inches plus. to initiate the formation of the so-called bird mounds. Possibly, the creation by the wind of these miniature dunes, together with the perching of birds thereon, are both involved in the formation of these mounds. Wind erosion is very severe on some exposures. In places, the wind had eroded the soil in troughs, undermining the vegetative turf to form a crude type of terracing. The woody roots of crow- berry had been exposed and were already supporting a thin coat- ing of lichens. With such constant wind action, one wonders how the vegetation became established in the first place. As shown in part c, wind erosion apparently had affected only the outer layer. Marine vegetation is well represented by the kelp beds, which consist of a considerable variety of seaweeds that are prevalent throughout the Aleutian district. The kelp is, of course, the habitat of numerous marine organisms, and during the summer it furnishes a favorite habitat for the sea otter. These kelp beds disappear in the winter. The oceanic climate of this region, the high humidity and pre- cipitation, and the prevalence of strong winds have combined to shape the vegetative complex that we find in the Aleutian dis- trict. In turn, this complex, together with climatic conditions, topography, and the rich marine fauna, has influenced the compo- sition of the indigenous fauna. Bird An effort was made to ascertain the Aleut names for birds and mammals. There are difficulties in such an undertaking, because one must be certain that both investigator and native informant are talking about the same bird. To make sure of this, a de- scription of the bird and its calls and habits was supplemented with a colored illustration by Allan Brooks, which was obtained from the National Geographic Magazine, and in numerous in- stances actual specimens were used for identification. In spite of all these precautions, it was necessary to guard against confu- sion in the minds of the natives because not all of them know their birds perfectly. This is particularly true of the more east- ern communities, which are farthest removed from a primitive way of life. The most accurate information was obtained from the Attu people living at the extreme western end of the island chain. There also is difficulty both in accurately hearing names spoken by natives, and in writing them adequately. Not being familiar with the technique of the ethnologist, I have used the English alphabet to represent the sounds of Aleut words as closely as possible. The endings of Aleut words, or syllables, are also a problem, because they are very soft, often somewhere between h and ch, and sometimes have a soft r sound included. Final ch, as used here, is the same as in the German Buck. R is guttural, glided over, and sometimes is accompanied by an h to emphasize this quality. /, as in "it." E, as in "let," unless marked long. A, as in "Ah." There are at least three Aleut dialects, which are indicated here as Attu, Atka, and Unalaska. When available, names from Alaska Peninsula, recorded by Wetmore or others, are included. Stejneger's names from the Commander Islands are also given (most of these names are Russian, but some are Aleut). Jochel- son has listed a few names, but usually he did not designate the dialect or the exact species. Some of his names cannot be identified ; however, only names that are generally accepted are used here. A few names in Russian and Chukchi, from the mainland of Siberia, are also given. 27 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Without doubt, the Aleut language will disappear, and it is worthwhile to record the names that these people applied to the species in their native fauna. Too often, the professional ethnolo- gist obtains only the obvious and generalized terms applied to a fauna; however, primitive societies clearly distinguish various species, almost as precisely as the scientist. Family GAVIIDAE Gavia immer: Common Loon Attu: Kah-goo-gich Atka: Kri-guch Qigux (Jochelson) The common loon, often observed on salt water in winter and in migration, usually is found nesting in interior lakes and ponds rather than in coastal marshes, but it also breeds throughout the Aleutian district. In this connection it is interesting to note that it does not occur in the Pribilofs. Bones of this loon have been identified from Kodiak Island and from Little Kiska (Friedmann, 1935, 1937). A specimen was taken by Bretherton on Kodiak (1896), and the bird was re- ported by Chapman at Seldovia (June 30, 1903). Dall (1873) reports a "Colymbus torquatus" at Simeonof Island, in the Shumagins, on September 2, 1873, and further reports (1874) that it breeds on Kiska and is abundant on Amchitka. On July 23, 1925, I noted a pair of common loons, probably nesting, on a pond near Izembek Bay, near the west end of Alaska Peninsula. In 1936, our party saw one of these birds (probably a migrant) on May 11, near Ushagat Island of the Barren Islands group, and on May 23, in Nushagak Bay, we saw six or more. The greatest number of these loons was found on Adak Island, though we also saw them on Amchitka, Kanaga, and Kiska. In 1937, at least 3 pairs were found on Agattu, and on June 17 of that year we found at least 2 pairs on Semichi Islands, each with 2 small downy young. In this instance, when we disturbed the adults, a glaucous- winged gull swooped down and carried off one of the young. Dall reported that the common loon does not winter in the Aleutians, and Mike Hodikoff, chief of Attu Village, stated that it arrives at Attu Island in April and departs in October. How- ever, during the years 1940 and 1946, Gabrielson found these loons on various islands as far west as Atka in midwinter, and in early spring and summer they were "common" or "plentiful' in numerous localities throughout the entire Aleutian district. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 29 Also, Cahn (1947) found this loon "not uncommon in winter in Captains and Makushin Bays" of Unalaska Island, and he noted it also in Iliuliuk Bay; the latest date was March 3. Gavia adamsii: Yellow-billed Loon Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj gagara (Stejneger) Russian, latitudes of Yana : Gagara Bolschaja gagara (Pleske) Chukchi: Uvanketsjouku (Palmen) It is extremely rare in this district. Herbert Friedmann (1934, 1935, 1937) has recorded bones of the yellow-billed loon from middens on Kodiak Island, on Amaknak (near Unalaska), and on Little Kiska Island in the western Aleutians. A specimen was collected at Kodiak bv Bischoff in 1868, and Fisher obtained an adult male in 1881. We did not observe this species on our expeditions, but the n hief of Attu seemed to recognize pictures of the bird and said it occurs in his home area occasionally. Stejneger (1885, 1887) considered it to oe a rare winter visitor in the Commander Is- lands, where he obtained one specimen and saw another. The bird he obtained was found on glare ice. unable to rise; evidently, it had mistaken the ice for water. According to published accounts, this loon migrates along the Alaskan coast, from southeastern Alaska, west and north through Bering Strait. Presumably, the fall migration is the reverse of this. Several specimens are recorded from the Pribilofs (in May and August) as transients. In the spring of 1924, I obtained a specimen from an Eskimo at Hooper Bay and was informed that these loons pass that point in migration. It is likely, however, that the yellow-billed loon migration is not confined to the Alaskan coastline. In the autumn of 1924, several natives along the Koyukuk River in interior Alaska assured me that the yellow- billed loon passes through there in migration, though it does not nest there. They seemed well acquainted with the species as it was described to them, having particularly noted the light-colored bill. Therefore, the yellow-billed loon, nesting in the far north, is widely scattered in migration and occurs as a transient in the Aleutian, Commander, and Pribilof Islands. Gavia arctica: Arctic Loon Gavia arctica pacifica Russian: Gagara We could obtain no Aleut name for this species. The Russsian name for loon in the general sense seems to have been adopted 30 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE by the Aleuts, so that we find Bretherton (1896) and Turner reporting different forms of this word as the Aleut name for loon in general, and Nelson applying it to the red-throated loon. The Arctic loon is widely distributed, nesting commonly on parts of the coastal plains of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, as well as in many inland localities. It is quite common on the east- ern portion of Alaska Peninsula, but it becomes exceedingly rare to the westward, as the following records show. Bretherton and Bent report them nesting on Kodiak Island, and Cahalane (1943) found them to be common in the Kodiak- Afognak group in 1941. Friedmann (1935) records bones at various levels in archeological diggings on Kodiak, this indicating a regular occurrence over a long period. Writing of his observations on the Alaska Peninsula in 1940, Cahalane (1944) says, We found this species common on the Naknek River September 3, and at Brooks Lake September 9. . . . On the western shore of Shelikof Strait, I recorded loons as "common" between Amalik and Katmai Bays, October 4, and "abundant" on the following day in Amalik and Kinak Bays and Geo- graphic Harbor. He also observed them off Cape Nushagak, October 7, but he adds, "They were absent from the interior of the Alaska Penin- sula, even where suitable habitats existed." These observations were made chiefly in the migration period, when Arctic loons are strikingly abundant along the Alaskan coast. On May 18, 1937, as we were approaching Valdez, Pacific loons were scattered widely over the water of the fjord. We counted at least 75 at one time. One loose flock contained 50 loons. In 1940, Gabrielson observed 30 or more pairs, as well as scat- tered individuals, on Kvichak River, July 23, and he noted 2 of these birds at the upper end of Iliamna Lake on July 24. On July 7, 1946, he noted a loon at Port Moller. Jaques (1930) found them to be common near Port Moller, June 1-23, 1928. On May 29, 1936, I noted at least eight pairs, apparently preparing to nest, among the ponds bordering the lower reaches of Ugashik River, but they are scarce at the west end of the peninsula. Farther west, these loons are less numerous. Among the Aleu- tians proper, we did not identify a single Arctic loon during two seasons of extensive field work and a third season of hasty recon- naissance. The chief of Attu Village did not recognize pictures of the bird and declared that no such bird occurs there. Donald H. Stevenson, former warden in the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, reported them as "not common." His only spe- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 31 cific record is the mention of two birds that he saw at Unalaska Harbor, October 15, 1920, which he thought were of this species. Austin H. Clark (1910) mentions only one bird, which was seen on a lake on Agattu Island in 1906. Turner, however, reported this loon, under the name of Uri- nator pacificus, as a common breeding bird in the Near Islands (1885), and, later (1886), he specifically reported one at Attu in the winter of 1880-81 and said that they nested commonly on Semichi Islands. Using the name Urinator arcticus, he said that this species was to be found among the Aleutians at any time of year, and he mentions seeing one at Amchitka Island in June. These reports of Turner are rather surprising, and certainly they are not in accord with more recent findings. We had abun- dant opportunity to examine Agattu, Semichi, and Amchitka Is- lands, which were specifically mentioned by Turner, and though we found the common loon and red-throated loon, we did not see an Arctic loon. Stejneger did not record it for the Commander Islands, and it has not been recorded for the Pribilofs. Gavia arctica viridigularis is known to be an occasional Old World straggler from Siberia to Alaska, and it has been recorded on the Pribilofs. Turner recorded two forms for the Aleutians, therefore it might be expected that viridigularis has occurred among those islands. However, in view of the confusion that has existed over the identity of the American forms of this loon, and because of its complete absence from the Aleutians, in recent years at least, a reported occurrence should be well authenti- cated before being accepted. Gavia stellata: Red-throated Loon Attu : Ka-ka-dra-cha or Ka-da-dra-ka Atka: Ka-kach Russian, Commander Islands: Gargara (Stejneger) Russian, latitude of Yana: Gagara (Birula) ; Malaja gagara (Birula) Chukchi: Jouku (Palmen) As previously mentioned, the Russian word "gagara" is used by natives in various parts of coastal western Alaska. This, and the Aleut names, are imitations of the call of this loon. The red-throated loon is the most abundant and widespread loon in the North, especially on coastal areas, and it occurs on both shores of Bering Sea. On the basal portion of Alaska Penin- sula it appears to be less abundant. Neither Gabrielson nor Cahalane reported seeing it there, although they observed the 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Pacific loon. We did not observe them there on our expeditions. Osgood (1904) records a pair on Chulitna River, August 12, 1902, and he observed a few others "at comparatively long in- tervals" on the Chulitna and Kakhtul Rivers; however, he adds that "they were far exceeded in numbers by the Pacific loon." McKay had collected specimens at Nushagak, and Friedmann has recorded the bird from Kodiak Island. At the western end of Alaska Peninsula, however, red-throated loons were abundant. They were noted in some numbers on Izem- bek Bay in 1925. Turner (1886) found them to be abundant in the Aleutians and records them nesting on Atka, Semichi, and Agattu. We found these loons to be plentiful on Semichi, Agattu, and Amchitka, and we noted them on Sanak, Adak, Tanaga, Kiska, and Attu. Gabrielson records them on Attu, Amchitka, and Izembek Bay. Friedmann and Cahn also recorded the bird from Unalaska. They are present on all islands that bear suit- able nesting ponds, and many of these red-throated loons spend the winter in the Aleutians. Stejneger and Hartert report this loon as "abundant" and breeding "frequently" in the Commander Islands. Clark also noted a pair on Bering Island in 1906. Family PODICIPEDIDAE Podiceps grisegena: Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena holbollii Friedmann (1935) records a bone, as well as several skins, from Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1943) recorded these birds as numerous in Uyak Bay and recorded a few in Kupreanof Strait. He also observed 2 birds on Brooks Lake, in the Katmai region, on September 9, and he observed 4 or 5 on the lower Naknek River on September 28. He stated, "On Shelikof Strait, the species was abundant between Katmai and Kinak Bays on Oc- tober 4 and 5, and off Cape Nukshak on the 7th." On May 29, 1936, we found one of these birds in a pond, ap- parently nesting, near lower Ugashik River, and another was swimming in the river. A little farther west, in ponds near Port Moller, Jaques (1930), reports several, June 4 and 20, 1928, and Gianini (1917) observed several at Stepovak Bay in June 1916. On April 28, 1925, I obtained a specimen at False Pass, at the extreme tip of Alaska Peninsula, and on July 21, 1925, I found an adult with two young in a pond near Moffet Cove, at FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 33 the east end of Izembek Bay, thus positively establishing the species as a nesting bird that far west. The bird was heard call- ing in the evenings. In 1942, Gabrielson observed this grebe at Cold Bay, and on October 20, 1943, he obtained a specimen at Kodiak and obtained two more in September and October 1946. There are a number of records for Unalaska. Turner mentions two specimens from there. There is a specimen in the National Museum that was taken by Dall at Unalaska, December 14, 1871, and Donald H. Stevenson informed me that this grebe occurred on the salt water at Unalaska, chiefly in the fall. Laing (1925) also reports it at Unalaska and at Atka. More recently, Cahn (1947) reported this grebe as not un- common at Atka in November, December, and January. There are a few records of the red-necked grebe west of Unalaska, though we have no positive data on nesting. Taber (1946) observed a flock of about 50 at Adak Island on November 25 and observed another large group December 16 — this group disappeared by December 25. These sightings were on the salt water of Bering Sea. On June 18, 1936, we observed a pair as they arose from the salt water near the northeast shore of Seguam Island. We have no record of its occurrence west of Adak, but Stejneger (1885) described it as a rare straggler in the Commander Islands, where he obtained a specimen. Hartert also (1920) considered it a straggler in the Commander Islands, where he obtained three specimens. Podiceps auriius: Horned Grebe This little grebe is found sparingly in the Aleutian district, and there is no evidence that it nests there. Friedmann (1935) found osseous remains in a collection of bones from Kodiak Island and lists nine specimens taken there, most of which were taken in the winter months. On October 1, 1940, Cahalane (1943) recorded several grebes in Viekoda and Terror Bays, Kodiak Island. Referring to the Katmai region of the Alaska Peninsula, he reports one horned grebe on Brooks Lake, September 9, 1940; he found them scarce west of the Aleutian Range. On the east side however, he found them abundant and observed "great numbers" in early October along the Shelikof Strait coast of Katmai National Monument, as well as in most of the inlets from Katmai to Kinak Bay. Osgood (1904) recorded several small grebes, assumed to be this species, at Becharof Lake, October 34 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 6-7, 1902, and McKay obtained a specimen at Nushagak, June 21, 1881. Gabrielson noted two specimens at King Cove, March 25, 1942. He obtained a specimen at Kodiak in October 1944 and obtained three more in 1946. On our expeditions we saw no horned grebes in the Aleutian Islands, but we observed several at Port Chatham, Kenai Penin- sula, on May 6, 1936, and observed two at Ushagat Island, of the Barren Islands group, 5 days later. However, there are a few records for the Aleutian chain. Laing (1925) saw about a dozen horned grebes at Unalaska, presumably in early spring judging from his itinerary. Bailey (1925) records two specimens taken by Hendee at Unalaska, September 21, 1922. Cahn (1947) reports on this bird at Un- alaska: "Seen sparingly in any of the bays during December and January, always solitary and rather shy. December 2, 1943, and February 21, 1946 are the extreme dates of record." Turner (1886) reports seeing a grebe at Attu that he suspected was auritus, but states that he did not observe it in the Aleutians in the summer, "and at no time to the westward of Unalaska Island." However, on July 1, 1946, Gabrielson noted one horned grebe on Amukta. Taber (1946) noted them in small numbers on the salt-water lagoons at Adak Island throughout the period of his observations and mentions specifically the dates November 22 and January 9. The bird noted by Turner at Attu might well have been auritus, because Stejneger (1885) obtained a skeleton of one in the Commander Islands, though he considered it rare. Hartert (1920) also records two horned grebes wintering on the Com- mander Islands. There is no evidence that the horned grebe nests in the Aleutian district, but, according to these records of its occurrence, it evidently winters in those waters. Family DIOMEDEIDAE Diomedea nigripes: Black-footed Albatross Attu: A-la-gri-gich or Ah-la-gri-gich Atka: A-ga-lig-ahh or Ah-ga-lig-ach Agligax (Jochelson) This is the albatross common in the North Pacific during our summer season, at least from May to October. The earliest dates that I have noted this bird were April 20-23, 1925, in the open FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 35 sea from Ketchikan to the western part of Alaska Peninsula. The black-footed albatross occurs commonly in the Gulf of Alaska ; it was observed in the vicinity of Kodiak, and frequently along the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain, though it rarely was observed near land. This albatross also was seen in the waters of Bering Sea, just north of Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians. We found these birds particulary plentiful at the Petrel Banks, north of Semisopochnoi Island. Laing (1925) re- ports them "about 100 miles north of Kyska Island." Though these birds were usually far offshore, there are two places where they came near land — Seguam and Kiska Islands. Nelson (1887) was of the opinion that the northern limit of distribution was considerably south of the Aleutians and quotes T. H. Bean to the effect that latitude 51° marked the northern limit. Turner (1886), on the other hand, stated that the species is quite a common bird in some localities north of the Aleutian Islands. In Bristol Bay in June, 1878, I saw numbers of them in the vicinity oi Cape Newenham . . . Toward the western Aleutian Islands they are not common but are frequently met. It is not certain that this albatross ranged beyond latitude 51° N. in the past, nevertheless it does so today, and, at least in the Bristol Bay region, it reaches nearly to latitude 58° N. Further consideration of albatross distribution will be found in the dis- cussion of the short-tailed albatross. An interesting story was told to me by several old natives at Atka Island. They insisted that albatrosses used to nest in small numbers on Bobrof Island, on top of the mountain, in winter. Judging by the descriptive gestures of one informant, icicles formed on their beaks while the birds were incubating. This is indeed a strange legend. It seems unbelievable that any of these albatrosses could have tried to nest in the Aleutians, but at least these Aleuts were talking about the proper nesting season. If I correctly understood the information given me by the Aleuts, they do not distinguish two species of albatrosses in the islands, possibly assuming that nigripes is the young of albatrus, in which case this stoiy might more properly apply to albatrus. A female D. nigripes collected June 17, 1936, near Seguam Island weighed 6V4 pounds and had a wingspread of 85 inches. The black-footed albatross is said to feed on whatever be- comes available at the surface of the water, including refuse from ships— this is true for our experience in the Aleutians. On one occasion, a dozen were following our ship; they were attracted bv fish offal thrown overboard by the sailors, who 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE were cleaning codfish. At times, we saw the albatrosses, ac- companied by shearwaters and auklets, feeding in tide rips. Cottam and Knappen (1939) reported on two stomachs of the black-footed albatross from the Aleutians. One stomach contained fish (mostly Scorpaenidae) , 35 percent; remains of 6 or more squids, 55 percent ; sea urchin, 2 percent ; brown algae, 8 percent. The other stomach contained fish (mostly Scorpaenidae) 92 per- cent; Gammaridae, 1 percent; brown algae, 7 percent. In 1941, Loye Miller (1942) found, in the course of experi- mental food studies off the coast of southern California, that "the greatest gooney appeal was provided by bacon drippings which had congealed to semisolid state." For better handling of this bait material, it was mixed with puffed rice before cooling. He remarked further that "Bacon grease seems to throw the birds almost into a frenzy. Some of them rushed right up under the overhang of the poop." Miller summed up his findings as follows : The most attractive bait discovered is animal fat. Bacon fat was superior to beef suet. The semisolid gelatin settling out from roast beef drippings was of no interest at all and was neglected after the first taste. Taste buds in the tip of the bill appear to be highly sensitive and discriminative. The turpentine-linseed flux of paints used in marking is very repugnant and seemed to be recognizable by odor before actual contact was made. I was repeatedly impressed by their seeming acuity of olfactory perception. He noted, further, that in subsurface feeding the albatross would tip up, or actually submerge to a depth of at least 2 feet with wings partially spread. This suggests a trait similar to that of the slender-billed shearwater, though the latter is capable of descending to a depth of many fathoms. Diomedea albatrus: Short-tailed Albatross Kodiak: Kay-mah-rye-erk (Nelson) As mentioned above, the Aleuts apparently do not have separate names for the two species of albatross. At least one Aleut identified cdbatrus as the adult bird, nigripes the young. Thus, the Aleut nomenclature is confusing, and the names already given for the black-footed albatross might apply equally well to the short-tailed albatross. We are concerned here with what appears to be an extinct bird. We had thought that a few remained in the Aleutiar district, but when the one specimen we collected in 1937 proved to be immutabilis, serious doubt was thrown on the possibility that any of the light-colored birds were albati~us. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 37 Bering Sea appeared to be the particular domain of the short- tailed albatross in summer. Nelson (1887) defined its summer range from 50° N. latitude northward through Bering Sea as far as Bering Strait. He reported them in the Aleutians and quotes T. H. Bean as having found them around the Gulf of Alaska, but he considered the mouth of Cook Inlet and the vicinity of the Barren Islands as their favorite resort. Nelson "found them very common between the islands east of Unalaska" during May 1877. Turner also found them plentiful among the Aleutians, as well as at Cape Newenham in the Bristol Bay region. Friedmann, who has examined bones unearthed from ancient village sites on Kodiak, Amaknak, Unalaska, Little Kiska, Atka, and Attu Islands, found numerous remains of this alba- tross, but he found no remains of nigripes. They are reported to have been abundant in the vicinity of the Pribilofs when whalers were active there, and they became scarce when whaling was abandoned. Austin H. Clark (1910), writing of his expedition in 1906, reported that — We first saw this species about 100 miles east of Unalaska on the day before our arrival at Dutch Harbor. On the next day, two were seen near the Aleutian chain, one of them within five miles of the islands. Two more were seen between Attu and Copper Island, on June 12; on the 20th one was observed about 20 miles off the Kamchatka coast, and the next day another in the Okhotsk Sea, near the mouth of the Aangan River. On October 1 this species was very common about the southern end of the Kurils, on both the inside and outside of the chain. Clark believed that the birds were more abundant than these notes indicate, because they are very shy and not readily observed. Stejneger (1885) reported that the species is not a rare visitor to the Commander Islands, and he, too, considered them "re- markably shyer than D. nigripes." Nelson (1887) also considered them shy, though "natives of Alexandrovak sometimes spear them from their kayaks." According to Otto Geist (in Murie 1936), in earlier days, near St. Lawrence Island, these birds "... were often caught on the pack ice near the island. This was often easy because the birds were very fat and could hardly make their way in the air." Today, the short-tailed albatross is rare, or extinct. Although Nelson had reported it as common in Bering Strait and noted it at St. Lawrence Island, in 1887, Otto Geist, in the course of archeological work on St. Lawrence Island from 1926 to 1935, did not see this bird. However, bones were found in excavations, 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and natives stated that it had been present in considerable num- bers, at one time (Murie 1936). Bent (1922) reports that he did not observe this bird during a cruise along the Aleutian chain in June 1911. Laing (1925) observed two whitish albatrosses at a distance in the Kuriles in 1924, but he saw no others during two crossings of the North Pacific. In the course of many voyages across the Gulf of Alaska after 1920, I never saw a short- tailed albatross. In 1936 and 1937, we cruised about the Barren Islands several times and saw none, although this had been considered to be a favorite area for them by T. H. Bean. It appears, then, that at one time the short-tailed albatross was plentiful in the Aleutian district and Bering Sea region in general, but that the population had suffered a drastic reduction in numbers, probably about 1900 or a little later. Austin (1949) has indicated that Japanese fishermen and plume hunters were responsible for the destruction of this species on its nesting grounds. But it seems that the decline began long ago. Did the plume trade affect this species, as it affected the Laysan albatross? Whatever the facts might be, the concentrated nesting of a species on one or on a few small islands constitutes a serious hazard to its perpetuation. There is a puzzling problem in distribution revealed by Fried- mann's work on bones found in ancient village sites. All bones found on the Aleutian Islands proved to be those of D. albatrus, and not those of D. nigripes. This indicates that in earlier times D. albatrus was the common bird of the region and that D. nigripes was scarce or absent, at least close to the coast. Even at Kodiak Island, though there were some bones of D. nigripes, Friedmann found numerous bones of D. albatrus, thus confirming early reports of this bird's abundance in those more easterly waters. Friedmann's findings from midden material, therefore, lend some support to Bean's designation of 51° N. latitude as the northern limit of range of D. nigripes, even though Turner states that he saw this bird as far north as Bristol Bay. Otherwise, at least a few bones of this bird would have appeared in middens. In his study of the distribution of these two forms off the California coast, Loye Miller (1940) did not find nigripes in channel waters near the coast, but found them farther out; how- ever, there is evidence that albatrus did occupy the channel waters chiefly. He quotes Willett to that effect, and remarks: "The two birds seem to have divided the territory between them, as it were." He states, "I have taken from the channel Indian FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 39 mounds great number of their [D. albatrus] bones, but never any of D. nigripes." Here, we have a parallel with the situation in the Aleutians. In both areas (California and the Aleutian district), only the short-tailed albatross occurs in middens, except for some over- lapping of the two species at Kodiak. Is it possible that in early times D. albat?~us was the species that came closer to land and was therefore more available? Apparently, in the north, too, these two species had "divided the territory between them." We need to know more about the whitish birds being seen today in the Aleutian district. Are some of these birds the remnants of the vanishing short-tailed albatross, or are they all Laysan albatrosses? If they are the latter, will that species eventually take over the range of albatrus? Turner, in writing of the short-tailed albatross, mentions two birds that were killed at Attu in the latter part of March, 1881. He claimed that "this species passes the winter in this locality and may be found, during very severe weather, about the western end of Attu." And he believed that it nested somewhere in that region, which also was the belief of the Attu chief at the time of our visit there. Nelson mentions a specimen, obtained by Dr. Bean, that had a wing spread of 88 inches. Diomedea immutabilis: Laysan Albatross We had not suspected that this bird occupied the Aleutian district until a specimen, collected near Ulak island, July 31, 1937, eventually proved to be of this species. On the field trip, we had assumed this specimen to be D. albatrus, and on the basis of that assumption we had recorded our observations on white albatrosses as albatrus. However, because Oliver Austin has pointed out the extreme scarcity of specimens ©r certain records of the short- tailed albatross in recent years, and suggests its probable extinc- tion, there must remain doubt about the records on our expedition. This, of course, throws much doubt on the possible existence of albatrus in the Aleutians today, but I shall record our observations for what they are worth, keeping in mind that the species ob- served was in doubt in each instance. In these seasons of field work, we occasionally saw white- colored albatrosses throughout the Aleutian islands. In 1936, we saw one between Seguam and Chagulak Islands on June 21. On July 31 we saw another sitting on the water between Buldir and 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE kiska Islands, and, later in the evening, we saw one nearer to Kiska Island. In 1937, we saw them oftener: On May 31, 1 north of Seguam; on June 2, at least 3 west of Atka; on June 3, several near the Petrel Banks and 2 between Kiska and Segula ; on June 17, 1 east of Semichi Islands; on June 18, 1 east of Buldir; and, on July 31, 1 specimen was taken at Ulak Island, 178° W. longitude. In 1938, Scheffer reported the following: On August 11, 4 were seen south of Atka, 3 of these in 1 group ; August 14, 1 was seen south of Khwostof; August 17, 1 was seen northwest of Semichi ; August 25, 1 was seen south of Tanaga ; and, on Septem- ber 23, 1 was seen in the Gulf of Alaska off Cape Hinchinbrook. On June 9, 1940, Gabrielson observed a white albatross fol- lowing the ship in the Gulf of Alaska. In 1941, he saw the following: February 3, 1 was sighted near Amchitka, and on February 7, 2 were seen near Amchitka Pass; June 24, 1 was seen at Tanaga Bay ; June 27, 1 was seen near Amchitka ; and on July 22, 2 were seen near Attn. Were all these birds the Laysan albatross, the same as the one specimen collected, or were some, or most, of them albatrus? The specimen collected weighed 4 pounds 6 ounces. Its length was 30V2 inches, and wingspread was 77^ inches. During 1947, 1948, and 1949, on crusies for the Fish and Wildlife Serice in North Pacific waters, Karl W. Kenyon (1950) made noteworthy observations on albatross distribution. Alert to the confusion in sight identifications of light-colored birds, he gave close attention to field characteristics. On October 13, 1948, Kenyon saw a Laysan albatross about 230 miles east of Kodiak, and Captain Carlson said that during 5 round trips to the Pribilofs he often saw 1 or 2 of the white albatrosses with the black wings and back at about this same place while crossing the Gulf between Kodiak and Cape Spencer but not in the Bering Sea. Kenyon records a number of other sightings in the North Pacific, but south of the Aleutian chain. He received parts sal- vaged by Elmer C. Hanson from two dead birds at the Army air base at Amchitka, June 5, 1948, which were sufficient for identification as Laysan albatrosses. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 41 Family PROCELLARIIDAE Puffinus tenuirostris: Slender-billed Shearwater Attu: A-la-mach Russian, Commander Islands: "Tschornij Glupisch" (Stejneger) In summer, the slender-billed shearwater is distributed widely over the North Pacific and throughout the Bering Sea. On the Gulf of Alaska, we observed them often, singly or in small groups. Some of the birds that we thought to be slender-billed shearwaters may have been the sooty shearwater, P. griseus. At Kodiak Island, however, P. tenuirostris has been identified, and we obtained a specimen there in 1936. Shearwaters, believed to be this form, were noted May 10, 1936, near the entrance to Cook Inlet; one was noted near Barren Islands on May 11; they were numerous between Sutwik Island and Cape Kumlik on May 14, and there was a flock at the entrance to Chignik Bay. On May 15, a few were seen near Xagai Island, in the Shumagins; on August 29, some were noted near Simeonof Island in this group, and some were noted between that point and the main- land; next day, between Kupreanof Harbor and Chignik, more were sighted. Again, on September 1, we passed through dense masses of shearwaters north of Karluk, in Shelikof Strait. These birds occur also on the north side of Alaska Peninsula and were seen as far east as the entrance to Bristol Bay. Slender-billed shearwaters occur all through the Aleutian Islands, with their center of abundance apparently at the eastern end of the chain, among the Fox Islands. Unimak Pass is a favorite feeding place, with large concentrations also observed in other places as far as the western end of Umnak Island. Many published accounts describe the hordes of shearwaters observed at various times. Arnold (1948), during an hour and a half, June 9, 1944, recorded 160,000 shearwaters in Unimak Pass. Probably the most outstanding was the flock noted by Scheffer in Umnak Pass on September 3, 1938. He says, in his field report: In the Pass we saw the greatest concentration of shearwaters that we have ever seen in the Aleutians. Captain Sellevold remarked that it was the greatest in his experience. The Pass is 3 miles wide. We estimated that the raft of birds extended for 25 miles by 2 miles wide, or an area of 50 square miles. From 5:30 a. m. to 8:00 a. m. the ship passed through dense masses of the birds, about half of them on the water and half flying back and forth ... At 5 p. m. the birds had thinned out by more than half. Apparently this bird is much less abundant to the westward, though in 1941 Gabrielson saw "thousands" at Attu and "several 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE thousands" at Atka. Stejneger (1885) considered it rather scarce in the Commander Islands. It appears to be relatively scarce in Bering Sea north of the Aleutian chain, though it does range far northward. In 1944, Gabrielson saw "thousands" between St. Matthew and Nunivak Islands and a "scattering of birds" be- tween St. Matthew and Adak. Nelson (1887) mentions a specimen obtained by Dall in Kotzebue Sound in 1899 and adds, "just northwest of the straits, the last of August, 1881, quite a number of dark-plumaged birds were seen, with many Rodgers's fulmars, which appeared to differ in size and appearance from the latter, and which I am inclined to think belonged to this species." Nelson records the Eskimo name for the slender-billed shearwater in Kotzebue Sound, thus showing that it must habitually occur there. A number of specimens have been taken at St. Lawrence Island in recent years (Murie 1936). The Eskimos of this island have certain taboos in connection with eating the bird. A specimen is recorded from the Pribilof s. According to Bent (1922), the northward migration is mainly in the western Pacific-, and the southward migration is in the eastern Pacific. He says they occur in the Okhotsk Sea, as well as in Bering Sea. Slender-billed shearwaters will feed on refuse from a ship's galley. On August 10, 1937, three of these birds came up to the stern of our ship as we drifted in the fog. They readily ate bits of beef and fish thrown overboard. They would dive for pieces that sank, keeping wings half opened, but propelling them- selves entirely by their feet under water. Apparently they can go to a considerable depth ; they would sometimes pursue a baited fishhook thrown in for cod and remain underneath for a considerable length of time. On two occasions we watched a shearwater pursue an injured codfish that had been discarded by the sailors as being wormy; as the fish wiggled feebly through the water, the bird pursued it and snipped out pieces of the gills from the still-living fish. But probably the most important food of the shearwater con- sists of crustaceans and other small invertebrates. On numerous occasions they joined with fulmars and auklets in the turbulent tide rips, where all were busy feeding. Sample tows taken in such places revealed a greater quantity of plankton than in adjacent areas unoccupied by birds. In this connection, it may be significant that the center of abundance of shearwaters in the Aleutians today coincides fairly well with localities where whales were once particularly abundant — in the Fox Island group. Per- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 43 haps both birds and whales were attracted by the swarming in- vertebrate life. Cottam and Knappen (1939) reported on 10 stomachs of this species that were collected in Alaska. They tabulated the total contents as follows: Amphipods, 139c ; schizopods, 15% ; undetermined crustaceans, 20.8% ; squid (Loligo sp.) 16.1%; undetermined marine invertebrate flesh, possibly squid, 29.4% ; and fish, 5.7%-. Gravel was found in each stomach and averaged only slightly less than 40% of the contents. In their summer range, the only foe of the shearwater that we could discover is the northern bald eagle. The shearwater fur- nishes one of the principal items of the eagle's diet, probably because of its great numbers. These birds also perish in storms, perhaps the storm mortality rate is higher than that caused by natural enemies. Early in September 1937 a heavy rain- storm was raging for several days about Unimak Island. While the storm was still at its height, we began to find dead shear- waters on a strip of beach. They finally totaled over 30; one bird was still alive. The birds from this one sample beach may have been representative of the destruction of birds over a large area. In 1925, I frequently found dead shearwaters on the beaches of Alaska Peninsula. On May 31, 1936, as we approached Cave Point on Unimak Island, a lone shearwater was sitting on the water. C. S. Williams shot it for a specimen, and it was found to be poor in flesh. On June 30, 1937, Scheffer shot one that was in a similar condition near Rat Island. As it sat on the water, we noticed that it appeared to be "dumpy." Grinnell (1900) says, "On July 4th, 1899, I secured a single speciment about 4 miles off Cape Blossom. It was resting on the water not far from a small icefloe and was in an emaciated condition." Certainly, there is a mortality element of some sort operating on the shearwater, as on other sea birds. Occasionally, shearwaters come close to land. At least 1 was seen in Nelson Lagoon, and in 1925 they were noticed at the entrances to Izembek Bay, on the Alaska Peninsula, and at least 1 flew over the shallow bay. Some of the large flocks noted in the turbulent waters of various island passes are not far from the rocky points. Chief Hodikoff, of Attu Island, declared that shearwaters formerly nested abundantly on Agattu Island and that a few were seen on Semichi Island in 1932. He said there were "not many" now since the introduction of blue foxes. He stated that 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE they nested "on level ground, some in clumps of grass" and that as soon as the young were able to fly they left their nesting grounds. It is interesting to note that, about 1879, Turner was on Amchitka Island with some Attu natives, when they picked up a dead shearwater. The natives told him that the birds "breed plentifully in the Semichi Islands." Though the breeding range of shearwaters is now well established, perhaps we should not entirely ignore native information of this kind. Puffinus griseus: Sooty Shearwater According to the fourth edition of the Check List of North American Birds, of the American Ornithologists' Union, the sooty shearwater occurs in the Aleutian and Kurile Islands. On all of our expeditions, we scrutinized flocks of shearwaters in an attempt to identify this species among the predominent slender- billed shearwaters. Although we thought that we could see differences in some instances, positive identification was doubtful. But, in the series of specimens of shearwaters collected in the Aleutian district, a single specimen proved to be P. griseus. Nichols (1927), speaking of his voyage between Seattle and the Aleutian Islands, says : Of the sooty shearwater I have no satisfactory identification, but am of the impression that it replaced the generally common slender bill farthest off shore at a point midway between the islands and the coast, and to some extent at least on the east side of the Gulf of Alaska. Pterodroma inexpectafa: Scaled Petrel Attu : Le-vi-dre-che This petrel has a wide range, but we have little informa- tion on it in the southern Alaskan waters. There is a record for Kodiak Island, a specimen collected by Fisher, June 11, 1882, that served as the type of Ridgway's Aestrelata fisheri. Wetmore collected a specimen at the Alaska Peninsula, August 6, 1911, and while crossing from Cape Muzon to Unimak Pass he ob- served a number of birds that appeared to be of this form. On the same expedition, A. C. Bent also observed the bird in the North Pacific, while sailing to the Aleutian Islands, and Rollo H. Beck, who was a member of the expedition, took a specimen at Kiska Island on June 17. Nichols (1927), speaking of seeing this petrel on his trip from Seattle to Nome, Alaska, says : Seen in the Pacific on 1 day only, August 5, when midway between the islands and the west coast, noon position 53° 36' N., 145° 37' W. They were FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 45 frequent all day, singly and in small groups, a conservative estimate for the total number, 30. We did not see this bird on our expeditions, but at Attu Island the native chief insisted that there was a third petrel, calling it le-vi-dre-che. He said that it is gray in color — if we understood him correctly — but that it is distinct from the forked-tailed and the Leach's petrels, with which he was also familiar and for which he had names. The chief provided some native guides, and we visited two small islets, Cooper and Gibson Islands, which are adjacent to Attu. We searched diligently and hopefully, but we found only the other two species. Inasmuch as it is known to breed in New Zealand, and because the egg dates are "December 24 to January 7" according to Bent, one would not expect to find it nesting in the Aleutians. But in view of the Attu chief's confidence in the matter, there was a possibility that the bird may enter burrows to roost. Pferodroma cookii: Cook's Petrel Pterodroma cookii orientalis A. W. Anthony (1934, p. 77) recorded a specimen of this petrel, postively identified, which was taken at Adak Island by members of the crew of the U. S. S. Kingfisher. It was 1 of 2 such birds that came aboard the ship, and the specimen saved had been sent to the San Diego Zoo in California, where it was placed in the collection of Louis B. Bishop. Fulmarus glacialis: Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis rodgersii Attu : Kil'U-ghoo-kin Atka: Ah-ga-hich Probably Russian Commander Islands: Glupisch (Stejneger) The Atka name for fulmar should not be confused with their name for killer whale, which was recorded as A'-ga-loh, with shorter syllables. Fulmars are common in the North Pacific and Bering Sea region, though in varying numbers. They are seen on the Gulf of Alaska, in small groups, in company with the black-footed albatross and shearwaters. We found them in Shelikof Strait, between Kodiak-Afognak Islands and the mainland, and farther west near the Shumagins. A few were seen north of the Alaska Peninsula, east to Bristol Bay, and north to Nunivak and Nelson Islands They were more abundant among the eastern Aleutians, 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and they are fairly prevalent throughout the chain, some having been noted at Wrangell Cape on the west side of Attu Island. Arnold (1948) recorded a concentration of about 38,000 fulmars in Unimak Pass on June 9, 1944. Throughout the Aleutian district, the dark color phase predominates, though some con- centrations of the light phase were encountered. On May 21, 1936, Cecil Williams estimated that 50 percent of the fulmars seen in Unimak Pass were light colored, and that most of those sighted on the north side of Unimak Island were whitish, though there were entire bands of dark ones. It is interesting to recall that Nichols (1927) found "the dark phase to light phase about as 99 to 1" in Shelikof Strait; else- where in the Pacific, it was about 9 to 1; near Unimak Pass, the pale and dark birds "were in .about equal numbers;" and in Bering Sea, they were almost all pale. Nesting Nesting fulmar colonies have been known in the Bering Sea region, on the Pribilofs, where light-colored birds are in the majority; on the Siberian coast opposite St. Lawrence Island; and at Copper Island, where light-colored birds are rare. Nesting places in the Aleutians had been suspected, but they had not been found. It was gratifying, therefore, to find several such colonies in 1936 and 1937, and in 1940 Gabrielson found other colonies east of the Aleutian chain. In 1940 Dr. Gabrielson learned that Sea Otter Island, near Afognak, supports a colony of fulmars. This nesting colony would account for the fulmar flocks so often observed in Shelikof Strait. In the same year, on June 18, he found nesting colonies in the Semidi Islands, and says, "The enormous concentrations of Fulmars, for example, was a great surprise to us, as the colony apparently has developed since the previous exploration." In the Semidi group, he found the fulmars in "huge colonies" on Aghik and Choweit Islands, and there were fulmars also on Kateekuk, Anowik, Kiliktagik, and Suklik Islands. They were mostly of the dark color phase, with an occasional light-colored one. In the Aleutians proper, we had found at least four nesting places. Among these, Chagulak Island is outstanding. As we approached this island on June 15, 1936, it loomed as a peaked mountain top rising sheer from the water. It affords nesting sites for a variety of sea birds, and a swarm of fulmars swirled above its top and milled about its slopes. On the cliffs of the south side there were small recesses in the red crumbly rock FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 47 strata. Each of these recesses was occupied by a fulmar, nesting with a single egg. They nested also on other types of ledges and on the grassy slopes all the way to the snow line. On the same day, we found another large fulmar colony on the neighboring island of Amukta. These two islands have the largest and the principal nesting colonies of fulmars in the Aleutian chain. In 1937, we found fulmars nesting in considerable numbers on the reddish cliffs of Segula Island (also known as Chugul), though this group was not nearly so large as those on Amukta and Chagulak. Another nesting place is Gareloi Island. Natives had assured us that fulmars nest there, though we did not find the birds on the first trip. In 1937, however, we found them in limited num- bers on the south side of the island. According to the natives, their numbers had been decimated, at least on all accessible ledges, since the introduction of the blue foxes. The volcanic eruption of 1930 also disturbed them; however, if the foxes were re- moved, this colony should increase. Natives told us that the fulmars nest on outlying rocks at Unalga Island, southwest of Gareloi, but we found none there in August. They are also reported to nest on Agattu, but we failed to find them. It is highly probable that a nesting colony will eventually be discovered in the general vicinity of Unimak Pass, perhaps on some isolated cliff or islet at Unimak Island, because fulmars are common in that area. A full schedule and bad weather prevented us from exploring that part of the Aleutian chain as thoroughly as we wished. Food Habits We had assumed that fulmars feed to a large extent on plank- ton, for we often found them congregated in tide rips, busily feeding. And Arnold (1948), observing a huge concentration of fulmars and shearwaters in Unimak Pass, found that they — evidently were feeding on a type of reddish-orange water life. On occason, when one of the birds was hard-pressed to leave the area in the immediate vicinity of the ship, it would turn its head down and to one side and regurgitate a reddish-orange liquid substance. However, records show a great variety in fulmar diet, including refuse from ships. A. W. Anthony (1895) has pointed out an interesting feeding habit of the fulmar off the California coast. Speaking of a large jellyfish that is abundant along that coast, he says, 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I have often seen a fulmar sitting on the water by the side of a jelly fish, part of which it had eaten, so filled that it could scarcely move out of the way of the boat. Specimens shot while these Medusae are common I have always found with the stomach filled with these alone, and a half pint of the slimy mass will often run from their mouths when lifted from the water by their feet. I think the fulmars enjoy a monopoly of this diet, for I have never seen other species eating it, nor will gulls, nor any sea birds that I have observed, pay any attention to a fulmar that is eating a jelly fish though they all claim their share if the food is of a kind that they care for. The abundance of the fulmars off this coast would seem to have some relation to the abundance of Medusae, since the winter of 1893-94 was noted for the almost if not entire absence of fulmars as well as jelly fish until some time in late February or March, when both jelly fish and fulmars appeared in small numbers. This is quoted at some length because it reveals an important habit of the fulmar, which also was noted among the Aleutians, where a large brown jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, often proved an attraction to fulmars. Mortality Factors Aside from the danger from foxes on accessible nesting sites, the only other natural enemy on which we have information is the northern bald eagle. The fulmar appears to furnish an important item in the eagle's diet throughout the Aleutian Islands as a whole, though murres and other species may dominate the diet of individual eagle pairs. The drain on the fulmar population by eagles could not be significant, in view of the great variety of birds on which the eagle preys. More important are man's activities, such as the raising of blue foxes. Dead fulmars are found on beaches, but, at present, it is hard to estimate the results of storms or disease. At any rate, we have several large flourishing colonies of fulmars, and those that have been depleted should increase again owing to the protection now being given. Family HYDROBATIDAE Oceanodroma furcata: Fork-tailed Petrel Oceanodroma furcata furcata Attu \A-la-ma-g6 Ke-kech Atka :Ki-ki-tich-noch Russian, Commander Islands: Sturmofka (Stejneger) The Atka name is applied to both this petrel and to Leach's petrel. In 1939, Grinnell and Test separated the forked-tailed petrel into two races, designating the southern form O.f. plumbea, whose range is said to extend northward to "the Alexander FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 49 Archipelago, just short of Cross Sound." Sitka birds proved to be intermediate, but closer to plumbea. In looking over material from the Aleutian district, it is obvious that there is variation in the characters used by Grinnell and Test — size and color (light or dark) — and many Aleutian speci- mens are puzzling in this respect. A specimen from Kodiak is similar to the Aleutian group. One from Ugashik, on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, obviously is furcata. This also is true for two from Nushagak. But a series from Belkofski, on the Alaska Peninsula, are darker than other Aleutian specimens — fully as dark as a series from Forrester Island, Stephen's Passage, Sitka, and Icy Strait — though the Belkofski petrels are larger. Since we are dealing with average characters, it is clear that the birds from the Aleutian district, from Kodiak and Nushagak west to Attu Island, should be called O.f. furcata. It is of interest to note that birds from the Commander Islands and Kamchatka are paler and (on the average) larger than • those from the Aleutian Islands. A few from the Aleutians are equally large and pale, and one from as far east as Nushagak is identical with many of the Kamchatka birds. These birds bear out Grinnell and Test's statement of an increase in size and a color transition from dark to pale, in the populations from south to north and west. Probably, we should consider the Siberian birds as the culmination of this trend toward larger size and paler coloration, and, for the present at least, we should class them with furcata of the Aleutian district. The forked-tailed petrel ranges widely over the North Pacific and Bering Sea and is the dominant species among petrels there. From May 29 to June 4, 1911, Wetmore found these birds common on the Gulf of Alaska. Friedmann (1935) records several speci- mens and eggs from Kodiak. Specimens have been taken at Nushagak by Hanna and Johnson and have been taken at Ugashik by McKay. We observed them in the Shumagin Islands and found them to be abundant throughout the Aleutian chain. Stejneger (1887) found them nesting in the Commander Islands. Nesting of this species in Bering Sea proper has not been re- ported, though the bird occurs far northward. Nelson (1887) found the birds off Nunivak Island in June 1877, but he speaks of them chiefly as autumnal visitors, as far north as St. Lawrence Island, Bering Strait, and Plover Bay, Siberia. Two specimens were secured from Kotzebue Sound. According to Nelson, they lingered in Bering Sea even after the formation of ice, and the Eskimos told him that they were captured on the ice, near air 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE holes, in a weakened condition. He says that they were found on the lower Yukon, and that one was found about 75 miles up the Tanana River, near an air hole in the ice, late in November. These petrels are also recorded from the Pribilofs (Preble and McAtee 1923). Cahn (1947) reports from Unalaska: "Seen abundantly in the fall and winter far out in Bering Sea." The Aleutians must be considered to be the stronghold of this petrel. We found them on most of the islands. Experience taught us that wherever we found petrel wings left by blue foxes, or petrel remains in fox droppings, it was safe to assume that the birds nested on the island. The following islands were specifically noted as being nesting places for these petrels: Sanak group, Egg Island (in Akutan Pass), Uliaga, Kagamil, Chuginadak, Herbert, Yunaska, Chagulak, Amukta, Amlia (reported by natives), Atka (on Korovin Volcano, reported by L. M. Turner), Salt (until destroyed by fox raising), Kasatochi, Igitkin, Ulak, Bobrof, Tanaga, Ilak (re- ported by natives, but now destroyed by blue foxes), Gareloi, Semisopochnoi, Little Sitkin, Chugul (reported by natives), Kiska, Buldir, Agattu, and Attu. It is almost certain that the birds nest also on most of the other islands — on the Shumagins, and probably on other islands off the Alaska Peninsula. This list serves to show the uniform distribution of these birds. It is well known that the forked-tailed petrel nests underground. It may make its own burrow, often as a side tunnel from the wall of the tufted puffin's burrow, or it may nest in natural cavities, such as those found in lava beds. Amukta Island fur- nishes a typical example, where the moss-covered lava formation had neat round holes through the vegetative crust leading in to irregular cavities beneath. Food Habits The forked-tailed petrel is said to skim the oil from the surface of the water near a wounded seal or whale, but we do not have extensive data on its food habits. Preble and McAtee (1923) record one stomach from the Pribilofs that contained a few fish bones. Scheffer made interesting observations at Kagamil Island on August 30, 1938, when about 25 forked-tailed petrels and 3 Leach's petrels were picked up on the deck of the ship. Six piles of regurgitated material on the deck contained broken remains of small fish — the largest was about the size of a man's little finger Mortality Factors The principal enemy of the petrel, so far as our observations FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 51 go, is the introduced blue fox. Petrels appeared to be especially palatable to these carnivores, or perhaps they are easy prey at their burrows. On Salt Island the species had been entirely elimi- nated by foxes, and this appeared to be true of Ilak, also. Petrels are attracted by ship's lights at night. They flock around the ship, chirping and chattering incessantly, striking the rigging and fluttering about the deck. Often, they get into staterooms, the galley, or other portions of the ship, and some- times in the excitement an egg or two may be dropped on the deck. Joseph Mailliard (1898), writing of the petrels on St. Lazaria Island, Sitka Bay, quotes Grinnell as saying that it was impossible to keep a fire alight in the middle of the night be- cause the petrels flew into it in such numbers that they ex- tinguished it. Oceanodroma leucorhoa: Leach's Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa Attu : Ke-Kech Atka : Ki-ki-tich-noch Russian, Commander Islands: Malinka tschornaja sturmofka (Stejneger) The Russian name given by Stejneger means a small black petrel. Leach's petrel has a more southern distribution than 0. furcata and does not range far into Bering Sea. Though it nests throughout the Aleutian chain and on Copper Island, ac- cording to Stejneger, it is much less abundant than the other species. Farther south, it becomes much more abundant. Bent (1922) states that on St. Lazaria Island, at Sitka Bay of Baranof Island, Grinnell and Ma'illiard estimated that 0. leucorhoa out- numbered 0. furcata four to one. They also are extremely nu- merous on Forrester Island. On the Aleutians we found this ratio reversed. Among the remains of petrels left by foxes, those of O. leucorhoa were scarce. The petrel colonies of any size were 0. furcata. When flocks of petrels fluttered about the ship's lights at night they were usually furcata, though sometimes there were a few leu- corhoa. It is interesting to note that in 1941 Gabrielson found Leach's petrel outnumbering furcata at Kasatochi Island. There may have been a nesting colony nearby. Thus, we find that these two species more or less intermingle in their ranges. But 0. furcata has a more northerly center of abundance, and ranges farther north, while 0. leucorhoa is more concentrated somewhat farther south, and does not reach far into Bering Sea. 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The natives declared that these petrels (probably referring to both species) nest "everywhere," but the following islands are the only ones for which we have precise evidence of nesting of Leach's petrel: Sanak Island group, Egg Island (McGregor, 1906), Amchitka (reported by Dall), Davidof, Kiska, Buldir, Agattu, and Attu. Dr. Gabrielson noted evidence of their presence on Amatuli Island, of the Barren Islands group, June 13, 1940. They were especially numerous on Buldir Island, where we found the greatest number of nesting burrows. No doubt they occur on a great many other islands, as the natives intimated, but probably in such small numbers that they are not easily detected. On Buldir Island, where we had the best opportunity for examination, their burrows were found in the sandy banks above the beach and along a stream, as well as on high grassy slopes, well up on the higher part of the mountain. The burrows extended about arm's length, often with a very small entrance so that it was difficult to insert the hand, but generally there was an en- larged chamber at the end. In sandy soil, the burrows were larger in diameter; in sod, they were much smaller and the en- trance was more obscure. There was a flat nest of dried grass in the end chamber. Usually, there was a single bird in the nest, but in at least 1 burrow there were 2 birds. Food Habits Leach's petrels have been observed following whales for food fragments, and they have been seen picking fish refuse in the vicinity of fishing boats. We obtained no additional data on their food habits. Mortality Factors Foxes prey on these birds where nesting colonies are available. Family PHALACROCORACIDAE Phalacrocorax auritus: Double-crested Cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus cincinatus Attu: Kuch-tirch Unalaska: T'chung-ahh Of the three species of cormorants nesting throughout the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, the double-crested is much less common than the pelagic or the red-faced. It nests on Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1943) reported it to be abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak group, and Gabrielson noted a few at Whale Island and four in Uyak Bay. Probably it nests in the Barren Islands also. Several were seen at Ushagat Island of this group, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 53 on May 11, 1936. On May 7, 1936, we had seen several of these birds on Chisik Island, in Tuxedni Bay, Cook Inlet, obviously preparing to nest. C. J. Rhode noted a colony of about 50 cormorants on islands of Skilak Lake, Kenai Peninsula. Identifica- tion was uncertain, but it is probable that these were double- crested cormorants. Osgood (1904) recorded this cormorant nesting on islands of Iliamna Lake. He saw them flying up and down Nogheling River, and several were seen on Lake Clark (one specimen taken) ; however, he believed few, if any, nested on that lake. He states that from the Mulchatna River near the mouth of the Tikchick to Nushagak these cormorants were seen daily, but not in great numbers. Again, he saw several on Becharof Lake, October 4 to 7, 1902. Cahalane (1944) observed cormorants, "presumably all of this species" (double-crested), rather commonly in the Katmai region of the Alaska Peninsula in 1940, and he reported them in September on Naknek River, on Naknek Lake, at the south shore of Iliuk Arm, at the mouth of Savanoski River, on Brooks River, and on Brooks Lake. By September 27 and 28, they were relatively scarce on Naknek Lake and River. On the Pacific side, he reported them to be much more numerous and recorded them as "common to abundant" in the bays of the Katmai coast, October 4 to 7. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson noted 1 or 2 double-crested cormorants on the Kvichak River, and on July 25, he reported 2 more on Iliamna Lake. In the same season, he also noted them at the Semidi Islands. On August 29, 1936, we saw at least two double-crested cor- morants near Simeonof Island, in the Shumagin group. They probably nest among those islands. On May 16 and 17, 1928, F. L. Jaques (1930) saw cormorants, which he thought to be this species, near the Shumagins and near Belkofski. The largest colony of this cormorant was found by the writer in 1925, in Isanotski Strait, at the extreme tip of Alaska Penin- sula. On the larger of the two Isanotski Islands, which was not over 150 yards long, there were at least 25 nests in a close group on a grassy slope. On July 27 the nests contained from 2 to 5 eggs, but usually there were 4 or 5. A specimen was collected. It is interesting to note that Beals and Longworth, on June 10, 1941, 16 years later, stated in their field report that "Small colony of 50 or more birds nesting on the most northerly of the two Isanotski Islands." 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Donald H. Stevenson, who accompanied me' in 1925, described cormorants nesting on a small island in Swanson Lagoon, on the north part of Unimak Island. His description, and the location of the nesting site, leaves little doubt that a colony of double-crested cormorants were nesting in Swanson Lagoon at that time. Among the eastern Aleutians we found several nesting groups, though they were small in number. On July 16, 1936, we observed five of these cormorants perched on low rocks at one of the little islands (which we designated "Puffin Island") in Trident Bay, Akun Island. On June 7, we had seen about a dozen at the west end of Umnak Island ; a specimen was taken here. Nesting was not actually observed in these instances. But on June 8, we found several of these cormorants nesting on Kagamil Island. Some also were found on Uliaga Island near by, and two small colonies were found on Carlisle Island. Seven nests, and a number of birds, were located on Herbert Island. The nests among the Islands of the Four Mountains were on ledges of sheer cliffs and in the walls of high caverns (sometimes very high) , which was in great contrast to the nesting on the low Isanotski Islands, observed in 1925. In some cases, these cor- morants were nesting in close proximity to red-faced and pelagic cormorants. We observed no double-crested cormorants west of these islands. The natives of Atka assured us that this cormorant does not occur in that part of the Aleutians. We are fairly confident that today this species does not nest west of the Islands of the Four Mountains. Yet, the Chief of Attu appeared to be familiar with this bird; he gave us the native name and declared that formerly it was abundant, though it has become scarce in recent years. Austin H. Clark (1910), writing of his expedition of 1906, said "I have a note of a few [double-crested cormorants] being seen in Unalga Pass near Unalaska, and I found them at Atka, Attu, and Agattu." Turner (1885) also, writing of the Near Islands, reported double-crested cormorants to be abundant, resident, and breeding. Clearly there has been a drastic change in distribution of this species since about 1906, (the time of Clark's notes). The cause of this restriction of range has not been determined. The species P. auritus as a whole is quite versatile in nesting habits. Many of the prominent nesting sites in the northern part of the continental range are on low islands. Elsewhere, cormorants nest in trees and on cliffs as well as on low islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 55 Therefore, there must be adaptability in the species. The in- troduction of blue foxes on a large scale in the Aleutians dis- couraged the low-ground type of nesting; therefore, the birds nested in the cliffs in greater numbers. This change in nesting locale of the double-crested cormorant may have resulted in competition with the more agile red-faced and pelagic cormorants. It may be pointed out that in the absence of blue foxes, the double-crested cormorant would nest on low flat ground, away from cliffs — a habitat not usually desired by the other two species. What the human factor might have been in the ecological picture is hard to say, but, under conditions prevailing in recent years, cormorants could hardly succeed in nesting except on well-protected cliffs. Whatever the factors, it is a fact that the double-crested cor- morant has virtually disappeared from the Aleutians west of the group known as the Islands of the Four Mountains. Phalacrocorax pelagicus: Pelagic Cormorant Phalacrocorax pelagicus pelagicus Attu: Kri-li-ti-kch or Kri-li-ti-kich ; Til'-i-toch (1-year-old young) Atka: Agli'-i-uh (possibly referring to any cormorant species) Agayux (Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Malinky Uril (Stejneger) This is the most abundant cormorant in the North Pacific and Bering Sea region. We found them in the Barren Islands, the Ko- diak-Afognak group, Chisik Island in Cook Inlet, Sutwik Island, Chignik Bay, Shumagin Islands, and along the north side of Alaska Peninsula to Bristol Bay. Hine (1919) said, "Colonies of this cormorant nested on the shelves of the sea wall along Katmai and Kashvik bays during the 1919 season." Osgood (1904) found these birds on Becharof Lake. Gabriel- son found them to be common in the Semidi Islands. We found the pelagic cormorant to be numerous throughout the Aleutian Islands, and they are common in the Commander Islands (Stejneger 1885). This bird has a more northerly distribution than other species, for it occurs on both sides of Bering Sea and as far as the Arctic coast. Ordinarily, this species was the more common in the waters about the Aleutian Islands, though among the birds actually nesting P. urile outnumbered P. pelagicus. There appeared to be a considerable number of nonbreeding P. pelagicus, in subadult plumages. In some cases we found no nests, though the birds were present in considerable numbers. 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Usually, the nests were placed on ledges of steep cliffs, though sometimes they were on overhanging walls of caverns well out of reach of the surging water. Only once was a different nesting site noted. In 1925, I found an unusual nesting situation near Izembek Bay at the west end of Alaska Peninsula. On Glen Island, at this bay, on May 20, there was a considerable colony of P. p. pelagicus in a compact group on a low point. Some of the birds had white flank patches at this time. On June 1, Steven- son reported that the birds were sitting on nests. On June 26, about 30 nests were counted, but there were no eggs. On July 27, the cormorants were still plentiful at Glen Island, but there had been no success in nesting. The interesting fact in this instance is the unusual nesting site, which was a low sandy point above tidewater. While there had been a few birds in breeding plumage, the majority seemed to be immature birds. Amak Island, with immense cliffs occupied by large numbers of P. urile and only a few P. p. pelagicus, is about 12 to 14 miles out to sea. It was not determined whether this was an abortive attempt at nesting on Glen Island by cor- morants crowded off Amak Island, or whether the birds were immature. Throughout the Aleutian chain, both P. urile and P. p. pelagicus are found nesting on the same cliffs. While the pelagic cormorant is a salt-water bird almost ex- clusively, Osgood found it on Becharof Lake, as noted previously, and natives of Atka Island said these birds will go to the lakes of Amchitka Island in winter. Cahn (1947) reports them at Unalaska as "abundant every- where along the rocky shores from September to May," and Taber (1946) says the species was present at Adak in winter, where they continuously lived in salt water, never in fresh-water lakes. Sutton and Wilson (1946) found them at Attu in the summer and in the winter. Food Habits The food of this cormorant is assumed to be fish, but, according to Preble and McAtee (1923), a considerable percentage consists of various Crustacea, at least in the Pribilofs. Sutton and Wilson, at Attu, obtained a specimen on February 28, and report: "Its stomach and crop were packed with small sculpins which it had caught in water about 15 feet deep along the west side of Casco Cove." FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 57 Phalacrocorax urile: Red-faced Cormorant Attu: Ing-a-tohh or Ing-a-torh Atka: Ing-a-tohh Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj Uril (Stejneger) Walrus Island, in Bering Sea, has been considered the chief nesting place of the red-faced cormorant in Alaskan waters. It was a surprise, therefore, to find that the red-faced cormorant is the dominant nesting cormorant throughout the Aleutian chain. V Figure 24.— Red-faced cormorant. 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On May 16, 1936, while anchored at Unga, in the Shumagin Islands, we discovered a good-sized colony of red-faced cor- morants on the precipitous cliffs of a rocky point. There were about 300 birds beginning to nest. Some of them were carrying nesting material; many had no nest at all. In our experience, this is the easternmost colony of this species. In 1925, I found a colony on Amak Island, a small conelike island off the west end of Alaska Peninsula in Bering Sea. It was estimated that there were between 4,000 and 5,000 birds nesting on the high cliffs — by far the largest colony known south of the Pribilofs. When visited again in 1936, these birds were still nesting on the same cliffs, many of them carrying nesting material (on May 31). On May 22, 1928, Jaques (1930) ob- served this species near Port Moller. Bogoslof Island is also occupied by .ed-faced cormorants, mostly in the form of individuals scattered among a large number of murres. While most of the Aleutian colonies of the red-faced cormorants are very small, there are a few sizable concentrations. On Adokt Island, one of the Baby Islands group in Unimak Pass, we esti- mated 500 nests. There were also large concentrations on certain islets in the Bay of Islands of Adak Island. But in many instances there were small groups, sometimes six or less. Following are the islands, east to west, on which the red- faced cormorant was found nesting: Unga (Shumagins), Amak, Adokt and Excelsior of the Baby Islands group, Egg (probably), Poa, Tangik, Bogoslof, Ananiuliak near Umnak (not certain), Uliaga, Kagamil, Carlisle, Herbert, Yunaska, Chagulak, Amukta, Seguam, Ulak, Kasatochi, Igitkin (probably), Adak, Gareloi, West Unalga, Semisopochnoi, Amchitka, Little Sitkin, Davidof, Kwhostof, Kiska, Agattu, Semichi, and Attu. These birds were identified at other islands, though nests were not actually observed. This gives the red-faced cormorant a fairly uniform distribution as a nesting bird from Unga and Amak Islands, and Port Moller, all the way to Attu, and they are known to nest still farther west, in the Commander Islands. The red-faced cormorant also winters in the Aleutian waters. Mortality Factors Birds which prey on the cormorants are the bald eagle, pere- grine falcon, and glaucous-winged gull. In a study of the food habits of the bald eagle in the Aleutians it was found that cormorants had been taken for food frequently; however, the species of cormorants was not determined. It seemed likely FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 59 that most of the remains that were examined were those of the pelagic cormorant, but no doubt the red-faced cormorant would be taken also where it is available. We found no remains of the double-crested species, but that form is relatively scarce. On Amak Island, several carcasses of red-faced cormorants, probably killed by peregrine falcons that nested nearby, were found beneath the nesting ledges. Falcons are indicated as the predator because eagles would have carried their prey away to their feeding places. Glaucous-winged gulls persistently seek the cormorant's eggs, and they are most successful when the parents are frightened off the nests, thus exposing the eggs to predation. Family ARDEIDAE Ardea herodias: Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias fannini The heron seldom enters the territory with which we are concerned. Osgood (1901) reports, "A great blue heron was seen at Hope by E. Heller." In the same general vicinity, May 8, 1936, the first mate of our ship reported seeing a heron early in the morning, as we were approaching Anchorage. It was recorded at Portage Bay (Nelson, 1887). So far as we know, then, this heron reaches the western part of its range at about the head of Cook Inlet. Family ANATIDAE Olor columbianus: Whistling Swan Attu: Kon-kirch Qumqix (Jochelson — dialect not given) Atka: Ko-kin-yeh (or ko-kin-e-reeh ?) Whistling swans nest on Kodiak Island and in suitable areas along the Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) specifically mentions Swan Lake, Chulitna River, and "upper waters of the Nushagak system, and near the Ugaguk River and Becharof Lake." Einarsen (1922) observed a swan with four young near Ugashik on June 26, 1922, and Jaques (1930) observed eight swans near Port Moller from May 24 to June 14, 1928. While in the Katmai region in September 1940, Cahalane (1944) observed swans "from Kwichak River to Naknek," on tundra pools, on Lake Grosvenor, mouth of Savanoski River, between Iliuk Arm and Mount Katolinat and above New Savanoski Village. 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted three pairs of swans be- tween Naknek and Brooks Lake, and on July 21, while flying over the country from Becharof Lake to Egagik, by way of Ruth, Ugashik, and Mother Goose Lakes, he saw numerous pairs of swans with 1 to 5 young among the many tundra pools and lakes of this area. According to local residents (1936) , swans nest on small islands in ponds near Ugashik River, and up the river from Nelson Lagoon. At Chignik I was informed that swans nest in Black Lake, the "second lake up Chignik River." Gabrielson was told that they nest in the King Cove-Cold Bay area. In 1925, though none were found nesting, a swan was seen flying over Hazen Point in Izembek Bay on June 13, and or July 23 there was a group of three in a lake near the sand dunes there. In the same year, on April 29 and on several subsequent dates, two were seen at Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island, and a trapper said that he saw a few swans in that locality each year. More recently, we have precise information that swans nest on Unimak Island, for in 1936 we obtained an egg, which, we were told, had rolled out of a nest on Ikatan Flats. The following year we learned that a pair had returned to the same flats. In 1941, Beals and Longworth noted several swans at Unimak Island, and they reported that on August 31 a trapper observed 3 pairs near Swanson Lagoon — each pair with 2 young. It is also reported that a pair nested on Ikatan Flats in 1940. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) says, "Only a few seen at Morzhovoi Bay, where I know at least one pair reared their young in 1879. I found them with their parents in a lake still unable to fly on August 29." Swans are not known to nest west of Unimak Island. Dall (1874) reports the killing of three swans at Sanak Island in September 1872 by a sea-otter hunter, who said they were not uncommon there in the fall. Apparently, swans have not been considered a part of the fauna of the Aleutian chain proper. Dall stated that they did not occur there, though Turner said a few wintered on Attu Island. It is possible that conditions have changed, for there is ample evidence that swans occur on many of the islands — at least in winter. At Atka Island, the natives assured us that swans winter in the Aleutians, and they specifically mentioned Kanaga and Amchitka, where swans had been observed on the lakes. On Amchitka, we found swan remains among the native buildings, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 61 and we learned that about 20 had been killed there the previous winter. We also found swan wings on Semisopochnoi Island, thus show- ing that some had been killed there in winter by native fox trappers. Friedmann (1937) found four swan bones in midden material from Little Kiska. The native chief on Attu Island assured us that swans winter abundantly among the lakes on the south side of that island, occurring in flocks of "eight, ten, to twenty-six." In 1924, the swans were said to have walked among the houses of the village, and, in 1932, "hundreds and hundreds" were seen among the lakes on the south side. Now, they occur only in small numbers. According to the natives, the swans arrive at Attu Island late in October, and they leave late in April. Mortali+y Factors It is probable that man has been the greatest enemy of the swan, for, under ordinary circumstances, the swan probably is able to protect itself against natural enemies. A trapper at Port Moller, on the Alaska Peninsula, told me that he had seen a swan defend itself against a red fox, and he doubted whether foxes were much of a hazard. Olor buccinator: Trumpeter Swan Quoting Friedmann (1937) on Kodiak Island: "A synsacrum and 2 tarsometatarsi were found in the superficial levels and another tarsometatarsus in the intermediate depths in 1935 ; in 1936 a metacarpal and the head of a humerus were collected." There are no other records. Branta canadensis: Canada Goose Branta canadensis leucopareia Branta canadensis minima Attu: Legch Atka: Luck or lug-ach, or lagix (Jochelson) Resident whites: land geese The white-cheeked geese were formerly common migrants throughout the Aleutian Islands area and nested on many of the islands. These populations now (1936, 1937, and 1938) have been universally reduced. The forms of the white-cheeked groups of geese that nest in the Aleutian district is a question that has led to endless confusion. Our latest findings show that leucopareia and minima are so in- extricably associated throughout the Aleutians that it is desir- 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE able to discuss them together. As far as we were able to learn, the Aleuts have only one name for this general type of goose. However, the Eskimos at Hooper Bay distinguish between these two forms, and they have a distinctive name for each form. It should be noted here that in much of the previous work with these birds, the name hutchinsi was used to identify the form that we now call leucopareia (A.O.U. Check List) ; and this change has resulted in considerable confusion and misunderstand- ing of the literature. It is certain that 2 forms of the white-cheeked geese nest in the Aleutians, but there is a question about the taxonomic rank to accord these 2 forms. As to considering them races of the same species, I agree with Bent (19,25) that "Both the cackling goose [minima] and the Hutchins goose [leucopareia] are said to breed on the Aleutian Islands, but it seems hardly likely that these two subspecies should occupy the same breeding range." The situation we find here supports Taverner's conclusion (1931) and the findings of Aldrich (1946) that we have two species. Aldrich has proposed that the smaller species includes three subspecies: true hutchinsii (not leucopareia), minima, and asiatica, and that B. canadensis includes the other subspecies of this group. On June 23, 1911, a female was collected on Attu Island by R. H. Beck, which Bent (1925) recorded as minima. On June 13, 1937, John H. Steenis collected a male goose of this group on Agattu Island. These specimens were studied by Aldrich, and he agreed that the Attu specimen was true minima, and that the one from Agattu was equally typical of leucopareia. At Hooper Bay (south of Yukon Delta), we found the Alaskan cackling goose (minima) nesting nearest the sea, while the lesser Canada goose (leucopareia) nested farther inland, though the two nesting ranges were adjacent. Two groups of Eskimos, an inland group and a coastal group, with slightly differing dialects, both recognized these two species of geese as different and had a name for each. With two geese populations nesting in such close proximity, without space for "intergrades," it would be illogical to consider them subspecies, aside from the facts shown by examination of characters. In the Aleutian district, these two species occupy ranges similar to the kinds in the Hooper Bay district. Former numbers — Turner found "thousands" of geese on the Near Islands, of which Agattu and Semichi were the chief breed- ing grounds. They nested on Unaska, Amlia, Atka, Adak, Kanaga, Tanaga, Kiska, Buldir, Semichi, and Agattu. On some FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 63 of these islands, the foxes had forced the birds to nest on offshore islets, and on Attu the natives hunted them extensively and do- mesticated them, clipping the wings of young birds. Jochelson (1933) says: "Some of them breed on the Four Mountain Is- lands." Bill Dirks, Atka chief, mentioned as former nesting grounds: Tanadak, Unak, and Tanaklak (all near Great Sitkin), as well as Amchitka, Ulak, Tanadak (the one near Kavalga), and Kiska. He also stated that at one time there had been a native village on Bulclir, and that the villagers used to pinion young geese to prevent them from migrating in the fall so that they would be available later in winter. Dirks recalled that his father once obtained 50 goslings on Buldir, and brought them to Atka, where he fattened them for food. Nelson (1887) saw a flock of do- mesticated geese at Unalaska, which had been obtained in the western Aleutians. We must include Attu in the breeding range, for it was on that island that Beck collected the nesting goose examined by Aldrich and identified as minima. Evidently a few geese have been able to nest in spite of foxes, and in primitive times undoubtedly a great many nested there. As late as 1911, Wetmore reported at Kiska "Two flocks of rather good-sized geese were seen flying over high up June 18. One of the officers reported seeing two on an inland lake. None were taken." And, again at Atka, he reported, "a flock of geese seen flying high up June 13." Austin H. Clark (1910) has presented a striking picture of geese in abundance : This goose is the most abundant bird on Agattu, where it breeds by thousands. When we approached the shore we saw a number of geese fly- ing about the cliffs and bluffs, and soaring in circles high in air. On landing I walked up the beach to the left and soon came to a small stream which enters the sea through a gap in the high bluffs, when I saw fifty or more of these birds along the bank preening their feathers. From this point I walked inland over the rough pasture-like country toward a lake where this stream rises. Geese were seen on all sides in great abundance, walking about the grassy hillsides in companies of six or eight to a dozen, or flying about from one place to another. Migration As would be expected, in the days when the lesser Canada goose and the Alaskan cackling goose flourished there was an east and a west migration along the Aleutian chain. In 1925, Donald Stevenson, former reservation warden, said that geese from the western Aleutians came eastward in the fall to join the throngs 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE concentrated about Isanotski Strait. Atka natives said that geese passed eastward at Isanotski in August. Chief Ermeloff, of Umnak, said that geese passed there "in the fall." Nick Kristensen, who has lived many years on Unimak Island, said geese arrived at Urilia Bay before they reached St. Catherine Cove, and he wondered, because Urilia Bay lies west of St. Catherine Cove, if this meant they "came from Siberia somewhere." Jochelson (1933) says: "In April it flies to the west, in October to the east, resting on the islands." It is evident that there was an annual fall migration eastward along the Aleutians. When the Aleutian birds arrived at the west end of the Alaska Peninsula, they undoubtedly joined the throngs of cackling geese that came down from the north. On August 14, 1936, we noted six cackling geese' flying south- ward over Nunivak Island. We were told that they linger a bit on the south side of Nunivak Island before continuing farther south. According to local information, they generally arrive at Unimak and the Alaska Peninsula about September 1, but they do not become numerous until 1 or 2 weeks later. Then, they assemble in surprising numbers and congregate at Urilia Bay, Swanson Lagoon, and St. Catherine Cove, all on Unimak Island, and at Izembek Bay, head of Morzhovoi Bay, Nelson Lagoon, and Port Moller on the Peninsula. In 1942, Gabrielson reported the first fall migrant at Izembek Bay as early as "late in July." In 1925, accounts of the coming of the geese in "countless thousands" and "millions" testified to unusual concentrations, and it is safe to say that this area is the prinicpal gathering place for geese nesting along the shore of Bering Sea northward, as well as those from the Aleutians proper. The emperor goose and the 2 forms of the Canada goose all assemble here — of the two, the Canada geese are in the majority. This area seems to be a place where the geese can fatten in the fall before continuing to their wintering grounds. They are said to feed to some extent on eelgrass; minima and leuco- pareia feed mostly on crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) and other berries and spend so much time on the slopes seeking these foods that they are known locally as "land geese" — distinguishing them from the "beach goose," which is the local name for the emperor goose. The geese become very fat and leave for the south about November 1, though according to some reports it is as late as November 15 or 20. Probably, the earlier date is the more FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 65 usual one. In 1942, according to Gabrielson, the geese departed rather suddenly, eastward, on November 20. This situation is quite comparable to that on the other- side of the continent at the head of James Bay, a southern extension of Hudson Bay, where the blue geese spend more than 2 months fattening, and then continue south about November 1. As the lesser Canada geese and the Alaskan cackling geese move south, they are noted in many other places, such as Metrofane and Mallard Bays in the Chignik area, at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins, and the Sanak Island group. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) said: "A large number are seen annually at Sanakh in the fall where they remain for a short time at this season; they are very fat and toothsome . . . They are also numerous on the peninsula where they feed entirely on berries." Our information on the white-cheeked group of geese for the more eastern parts of the Alaska Peninsula is, at this time, not as complete as the information that we have for other parts of this group's range. Osgood (1904) reported a flock of the birds at the mouth of the Chulitna River on August 5, 1902. Others were seen later on the Mulchatna and were seen between the Mulchatna and Nushagak. On July 6, 1925, I saw a pair of geese, not specifically identified, on the tide flats of Izembek Bay ; it is possible that they were nesting birds. In August 1911, Wet- more repeatedly saw "a small goose" on the marshes back of Thin Point. On July 28, 1911, he saw another at Morzhovoi Bay and saw three more on July 30. All of these, he provisionally identi- fied as cackling geese. The spring migration is much less noticeable, no doubt be- cause the birds are intent on reaching the nesting grounds and therefore do not gather in large concentrations, and also because their numbers have been greatly reduced since the previous autumn. Residents at False Pass were undecided whether the geese pass through there in the spring. We were told that they also pass through the Chignik area, and at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins, and at Sanak Island farther west. At Sanak, we learned that the geese gather on the water enclosed by Sanak, Elma, and Caton Islands, though they do not linger there in the fall. This suggests that in the spring they have completed a lengthy flight over the ocean, thus needing both food and rest. Chase Littlejohn, writing of the migration at Sanak in 1887-88, said, "They used to stop here on their way north a few years ago, but they rarely if ever do now, for what reason I do not know." 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Evidently, the geese have resumed the practice in view of our information for more recent years. Jaques (1930) reported that "Three flocks of what were probably cackling geese were migrating to the southwest May 16, inside the Shumagin Islands." They may have been headed for the Aleutians, judging by the direction they were taking. It is evident, from information at hand, that the spring migra- tion took place in April and part of May, but it was not so spectacular as the fall migration. Nesting Habits Agattu, in the Near Islands group, is the most favorable for geese. Most of the island is a lowland, liberally dotted with lakes. This makes it easy to understand why such islands as Semichi, Amchitka, Tanaga, and Kanaga were at one time a goose para- dise — all of them have extensive lowlands with lakes. There is another type of nesting habitat which is typified by Buldir Island — a domelike island rising sheer from the sea. Buldir possesses beaches and a small grassy valley cut by a stream. In this valley, where the grasses and sedges are heavy and rank, there were no geese. High on the mountain there are little depressions, benches, and valleys, which are cut by water courses. In this terrain, where the grasses and sedges are short and tender, there were geese — even though there is fog much of the time. So, on Buldir, the geese apparently have found an en- vironment that is suited to them. It is interesting to note that these geese do not hesitate to take to salt water. One, with two downy young, was seen in a bay at Agattu, and another was seen in the water near Chagulak, an island at Amukta Pass. The presence of a goose at Chagulak suggests another high-mountain habitat, because that island is extremely precipitous. Present numbers — We have just enumerated the early accounts of "thousands" of geese, including Turner's "thousands" in the Near Islands, and Clarke's tale of abundance on Agattu. Today, the Aleutian district presents a striking example of the rapid de- cline of a species ; the general opinion is that the fall concentra- tions in the False Pass area have greatly declined, apparently involving to some extent the geese from the more northerly nest- ing grounds. We were surprised to find no sign of these geese on the lake- dotted flats around the lower part of the Ugashik River, and in 1937 we observed only a few pairs of geese on Agattu Island — probably less than 6 pairs in 4 days of traveling over the island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 67 One pair had 2 young, and another had 5 young. In the Semichis, we found feathers and a few droppings on Alaid Island. On June 15, 1936, the captain and the mate of our ship saw a "small goose" of the canadensis type near the shore of Chagulak Island, and we found signs of geese on Buldir. However, they had disappeared on most of the islands, and our total observa- tions indicated that only a few pairs remained in the Aleutians. In fact, these geese are so scarce that the migration is no longer noticeable, and some of the younger Aleuts didn't seem to know about it. When the remaining geese that go to the Aleutians are killed, it will be a long time for a migration to become rees- tablished, and consequently an extensive habitat for minima and leucopareia will lie vacant. Causes for decline — The natives, as well as several writers, have assumed that the disappearance of these geese from many islands was due to the introduction of blue foxes. Undoubtedly, this is true, yet on Buiclir where there are no foxes, the geese are not plentiful. Undoubtedly, another important cause for their decline is increased hunting along the migration route and on the wintering grounds in the south. Administrative action has already been taken to free certain favorable islands, including Agattu, from foxes. Further, to preserve these geese, it remains for sportsmen to protect the birds on the wintering grounds. With such a combination of protection, it is still possible to prevent these geese from losing their present tenuous hold in the Aleutians, and perhaps it would be possible for them to build up to a point where they will be safe from extinction. Branta nigricans: Black Brant Attu : Agru-ge la-ghe Nelson Island Eskimo: Nuk-hla-ra-nak Hooper Bay Eskimo: Nuk-ht-nuk Hooper Bay, a more inland dialect: Nuk-lu-gu-nuk Nelson (Eskimo dialect) : Luk-hlug-u-huk Russian, Yana district: Njemok (Pleske) Chukchi: Nedljuitti (Palmen) The black brant is only a migrant in the Aleutian district, but it occurs in considerable numbers. In 1936, we were told at Port Moller that the brant appear there in April, and we re- ceived the same information for the Chignik area. We had seen them on northward migration near Seymour Narrows, British Columbia, on April 24, and on Queen Charlotte Sound on April 68 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 25. Donald Stevenson, in 1925, said that he had seen them at King Cove "late in April." Apparently, the many bays at the western end of Alaska Peninsula are favorite gathering- places for black brant in migra- tion. In 1925, Stevenson and I observed them on Izembek Bay, where they were present on May 20 in small flocks, on the water and flying from point to point. However, some flocks contained as many as 200 birds, and about 5,000 black brant were estimated for the entire bay. The following day, at the east end of the bay, there were only a few groups. Stevenson arrived at this bay on June 2 and found the brant to be plentiful. As he passed Applegate Cove, he saw a "swarm" of brant up the bay, rising and settling in a funnel-shaped mass. There were otjier groups of 50 to 75 brant flying up the bay, some of these joining the large flock. The following day he saw more of them, and, in each instance, they seemed inclined to move in a northeasterly direction. On June 16, we saw a small flock and a single bird ; next day we saw several small flocks near the outer sand islands. This was their last appearance. In 1943, Gabrielson found black brant on the Sanak Islands on April 30, and the next day, at King Cove, he saw 100, or more, heading toward Cold Bay. In 1944, residents at Port Moller reported the first spring flight on April 26. A. C. Bent (1925) quotes Chase Littlejohn as saying that the brant move westward along the Alaska Peninsula, 1 or 2 miles offshore, turn into Morzhovoi Bay, and thence go into the Bering Sea. This probably outlines the spring migration fairly ac- curately. While we were at Nunivak Island on August 14, 1936, black brant had arrived from the north. Eskimo said that these brant remain on the inland lakes of that island for about 2 months, or until sometime in October, before continuing south. In the meantime, many others have gone farther south, because at Port Moller, on August 29, the residents said that the brant were due at that time and that they would remain there until about November 1, before continuing south. They also return to Izembek Bay during their migration. Dall reported that black brant were nesting on some of the western Aleutians, but Nelson was undoubtedly correct when he assumed that these birds must have been small geese of the canadensis group. Friedmann (1937) records the following re- mains from native middens: One skull and 2 sterna from Little FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 69 Kiska; 1 humerus from Atka; and 4 humeri from Attu. In 1936, the Attu natives told us that black brant appear there occasionally in the fall, sometimes in company with the emperor goose. Stejneger (1885) reported the species occuring sparingly in the Commander Islands in migration. Philacte canogica: Emperor Goose Attu: Il-d-ghir-hch Atka: Kd-ghu-mung Qdmgan (Jochelson) The emperor goose apparently does not commonly nest in the Aleutian Islands, nor on the Alaska Peninsula, but at least one record of nesting was established. During June 1925, a Bureau of Fisheries boat had stopped for a short time at Amak Island, on the way to Port Moller. The pilot informed me that during that stop at least three pairs of emperor geese were seen. On July 10, 1925, during a visit to Amak, I found the remains of a young emperor goose in a bald eagle nest. The feet, stomach, and numerous pinfeathers were present in the nest, and were collected. This appears to be the southernmost nesting locality. The Aleutian district is certainly the principal wintering place for emperor geese. We noted evidence of such occurrence and obtained statements of natives and others who were familiar with specific localities, and in 1941 and 1942 Gabrielson noted them as plentiful at a number of the islands he visited in the winter months. They are reported as spending at least a part of the winter as far east as Port Moller, on the north side of the peninsula, leaving when the ice formed but returning when the water opened again. Some of these geese winter at Urilia Bay on Unimak Island and on Izembek Bay; a few geese winter near Chignik on the south side of Alaska Peninsula, and some of them winter at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins. A banded bird was recorded at King Cove in the fall of 1926. Turner (1886) makes the sweeping statement that these birds winter on the south side of Alaska Peninsula and on offshore islands as far east as Cook Inlet. Friedmann recorded bones of this goose in all layers of Kodiak middens. Today, they are less numerous along those shores, possibly because of the advent of white men and an increased kill resulting from modern weapons. Emperor geese are known to winter in some numbers in the Sanak group. We found recent remains at Unalaska, June 3, 1936, and on Bogoslof Island, June 5, 1936. Eyerdam (1936) 70 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH 4ND WILDLIFE SERVICE obtained two specimens at Unalaska on June 20 and on August 7, 1932. These geese are known to winter on the following islands: Unimak, Unalaska, Sanak, Umnak, Amukta, Seguam, Atka, Adak, Tanaga, Kanaga (abundant), Amchitka, Ulak (longi- tude 178 c W.), Ogliuga, Kavalga, Semisopochnoi, Kiska, and Attu. The chief of Attu declared that they were in that locality in "millions." These are the islands on which we have specific information. Undoubtedly, emperor geese occur on many, if not all, of the other islands; almost certainly they occur on Agattu and Semichi, for example. As may be expected, there are many records of winter oc- currences farther south, in Washington, Oregon, and California. These records are numerous enough to suggest that some strag- glers find their way into those southern localities quite regularly ; however, the regular wintering area is confined to portions of Alaska Peninsula, the Shumagin and Sanak Islands, and the Aleutian chain. Apparently, they are rare on the west side of Bering Sea during the winter. Stejneger (1887) records two specimens taken at Bering Island, April 6, 1886. The spring migration varies according to the locality and the age class. Natives declare that emperor geese leave Attu Island in April; Turner (1886) gave the date as the "latter part of March." He also stated that after the middle of Apri* considerable numbers of geese begin to arrive on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, particularly in the neighborhood of Ugashik. In 1924, I observed the spring migration at the nesting grounds at Hooper Bay. The first migratory wave began about the middle of May and continued to the end of the month. There was another notable flight about June 5 and 6, which appeared to end the migration of breeding birds. Nesting had begun at that time. A second distinct migration at Hooper Bay took place from June 21 to July 1. These were immature birds, probably all nonbreeders. It was my good fortune to observe the other end of such migration in 1925, at Izembek Bay and Unimak Island. On April 29, 1925, and for several days following, flocks of emperor geese were noted at Urilia Bay, on the north side of Unimak Island, many of them flying northeastward. On May 17, a flock of 250 was seen standing on an exposed sand bar in St. Catherine Cove. On May 20, they were common in Izembek Bay, and Donald Stevenson noted a flock of 300 there on June 2. We saw a similar-sized flock on June 8, at Moffet Cove, where they FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 71 were noted throughout June in diminishing numbers. The last flock was seen on July 7. The time of gradual disappearance on Alaska Peninsula corresponds very well with the time of the late migration noted at Hooper Bay the previous year. The lingering flocks in Izembek Bay were mostly immature birds. One bird, which was collected in adult plumage, proved to be a nonbreeder. A few late occurrences were noted farther west. C. S. Williams noted a group of about six emperor geese on Uliaga Island on June 8, 1936; and a bald eagle's nest on Kavalga Island con- tained remains that were fresh enough to indicate a kill in July. Apparently, there is an eastward movement of emperor geese along the Aleutian chain, and a consequent "piling up" at favorite locations on the Alaska Peninsula, until the northern flights are well under way. The exact reversal of this process occurs in the fall. Some time early in September, the emperor geese begin to arrive from the north in the vicinity of Izembek Bay. And, according to the enthusiastic accounts of local residents, these emperor geese are almost as numerous as the cackling geese before the latter de- clined in numbers. At Port Moller, emperors are said to arrive as early as the latter part of August. They congregate on Nelson Lagoon, Izembek Bay, head of Morzhovoi Bay, locally in Isanotski Strait, St. Catherine Cove, Swanson Lagoon, and Urilia Bay. Most of these geese move westward some time in November. Incidentally, Swarth (1934) states that emperor geese were present on Nunivak Island, to the north, as late as October 29, 1927. The Attu chief said that they arrive at that westernmost point in the Aleutians late in October. Apparently, in fall migration the immature birds again lag behind their elders. According to Swarth, the first arrivals on Nunivak Island, observed by Cyril G. Harrold, August 20 to the middle of September, were white-headed adults. "On September 15 the first young birds (dusky headed) were seen and they were common thereafter." Food Habits It is well known that the emperor guose is largely a beach feeder; in fact, it has earned the local name "beach goose." Yet, it is reported as occasionaly feeding on the berries of the tundra, notably Empetrum nigrum. Swarth (1934) sums it up thus, The emperor geese fed mostly upon the sea shore, but occasional flocks were encountered on the tundra, feeding upon berries. The one adult male 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of the series had its face stained and the throat and entire intestinal tract dyed blue from a diet of berries. In the spring of 1925, these birds were feeding at low tide on tide flats in Izembek Bay. The tide is about an hour later at the head of Izembek Bay than at the entrance; the same situation exists between the two sides of the long Hazen Point. The emperor geese were well aware of this, and when their feeding grounds were flooded by the incoming tide they simply flew up to Hazen Point, crossed over a few hundred yards to the east side, where the flats were still exposed, and continued feeding. The narrower parts of this point were favorite flyways. In this area, the principal food was thought to be eel grass. On June 14, at the margin of a pond, it was noted that the grass was grazed off short ; the area was trampled and was littered with droppings. However, the stomach of an immature bird found in a bald eagle's nest on Amak Island on July 10 contained remains of small crabs. Emperor geese are often reported as feeding on some kind of kelp in winter. At Kanaga Island, we were told that they feed on kelp and the green shoots of Elymus, which, even in winter, may be found under the dead vegetation. One informant stated that the geese probed into the ground and pulled out the horizon- tal rhyzomes of Equisetum. We had noted droppings on Ogliuga Island consisting of the herbaceous parts of Equisetum arvense; but these droppings could not be positively identified. Several observers in the Aleutians reported that emperor geese feed extensively on green "sea lettuce," as well as Fucus, and the "exposed roots" of Elymus. Chase Little John, apparently referring to Sanak Island and Morzhovoi Bay, says: "Here they live almost entirely on a bright green seaweed, locally known as sea lettuce, but at times eating small mussels." Cottam and Knappen (1939) have presented a comprehensive statement on the food habits of the emperor goose, based on analyses of 35 stomachs. Few, if any, of these stomachs were obtained in the Aleutian Islands, yet the data agree fairly well with observations made in this area. Their findings (based on the contents of 33 stomachs) show 91.58 percent vegetable matter, and 8.42 percent animal matter. Their findings are further sum- marized as follows: Algae, 30.73 percent; eel grass and other pond weeds, 13.91 percent; grasses and sedges, 24.94 percent; undetermined and miscellaneous plant fiber, 22 percent; bivalve mollusks (Pelecypoda), 3.66 percent; crabs and other crustaceans, 2.18 percent; rodents and fishes, 1.76 percent; and miscellaneous animal life, 0.82 percent. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 73 Mortality Factors At Sanak Island, a resident declared that one winter he found 15 dead emperor geese on the beach. Although he thought that the deaths were caused by the frozen condition of the fresh- water creeks, the precise mortality factor here must remain unknown. Among the natural enemies of the emperor goose is the bald eagle. However, there is no evidence that the eagle materially affects the goose population. Anser albifrons: White-fronted goose Anser albifrons frontalis Attu : Kog-a-la-gich Russian, latitudes of the Yana: Kasorka (Pleske) Bones of white-fronted geese are recorded by Friedmann in middens on Kodiak, Amaknak, Little Kiska, and Attu Islands. The Attu natives informed us that they have seen these geese in September; but they stated that the sightings are rare and that these geese do not winter there. Stejneger (1887) stated that occasionally these geese visit Bering Island in spring migra- tion. Turner did not observe this species in the Aleutian Islands. In 1925, I learned of a trapper at False Pass who had a white- fronted goose in captivity; he had caught the goose at St. Cath- erine Cove during the previous autumn. Residents of the area stated that this goose is very scarce around the west end of Alaska Peninsula. The white-fronted goose is a rare migrant in the Aleutian chain; therefore, Turner (1886) no doubt was partly right when he said, "They probably never visit the islands lying west of the mainland, as that region does not contain their particular food in sufficient quantity to induce them to visit it." His further statement that the Russians at St. Michaels referred to it as the ^un-dri-na goose, or lowland goose, is further explanation of its scarcity in the Aleutians, where most of the land is rugged. Farther east along the Alaska Peninsula, however, suitable ground is available, and we found nesting birds on the tide flats at Ugashik River. On May 27-29, 1936, at least six pairs were noted in that area. Osgood (1904) records that he saw these birds at the base of Alaska Peninsula in 1902 ; he frequently saw them on the Chulitna River in early August, saw one on the Mulchatna River on September 3, and on the trip from the Mulchatna River to Nushagak he saw a considerable number of these birds each day. 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson observed three pairs of white- fronted geese along Kvichak River, above Naknek, and he was informed by natives that this is the common nesting goose at the base of Alaska Peninsula. He estimated that he saw 500 birds along the Chulitna River on July 26. To sum up, the white-fronted goose nests on the eastern por- tions of Alaska Peninsula, at least as far west as Ugashik River; farther westward throughout the Aleutian district it is only a rare visitor. Chen hyperborea: Snow Goose On October 1, 1942, Gabrielson noted two snow geese with a flock of Canada-type gees? at Cold Bay. Again, on October 20, 1944, he saw 4 large flocks flying over Olga Bay at Kodiak Island, and, on the same day, he stated that 1,000 to 1,500 birds settled near Kodiak village, where several were shot by the townspeople. He comments: "They are seldom seen here, though more fre- quently at the south end of the island." This is the only information available for this goose. There are no records concerning the area to the west. Anas platyrhynchos: Mallard Anas plafyrhynchos platyrhynchos Attu: Argh'-ich Atka: Ag-ich (apparently the same word in both dialects) Russian, Commander Islands: Selesenn (Stejneger) The mallard is widespread throughout the length of the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, both as a breeding species and as a winter resident. Stejneger (1887) reported also that it was "resident, breeding numerously in Bering Island; comparatively rare on Copper Island." In 1886, Turner reported that the mallard was plentiful in the Aleutians in winter, and stated that it breeds sparingly on Agattu and Semichi Islands and that a few pairs were seen on Amchitka Island in the latter part of May 1881 — which indicates nesting. Our expeditions verify this in- formation. In 1936, Attu natives stated that they had observed these birds nesting near streams, and stated that they winter there. The following season, on June 9, which was during the nesting season, we saw several mallards along the shore of Attu Island. Wilson (1948) observed them at Attu in the breeding season when some of them were paired. The last ones observed were on August 28. We found a number of mallards among the lakes of Agattu Island, and on June 13 we found FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 75 a female with eight downy young. On June 21, 1937, a pair was seen among the lakes on the southeast part of Kiska Island, and another pair was seen in a lake at the South Harbor. On July 5, we flushed two males and a female from a pond on Amchitka Island. The natives of Atka also assured us that mallards are found there both summer and winter, which suggests nesting. June 20, 1941, Gabrielson saw a female with four young at Unalaska Island. The islands mentioned here are the principal ones that contain ponds and lakes. However, Cahn found this bird nesting at Unalaska Island. Farther east, we obtained additional nesting data. On May 7, 1925, I found a nest of 11 eggs at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island. On June 6, a nest of 5 fresh eggs was found in a stream valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, western Alaska Peninsula, and on June 23 a nest of 10 eggs was observed on the tide flat at Hazen Point, Izembek Bay. In 1936, residents at Port Moller assured us that mallards nest around Nelson Lagoon, and in 1928 Jaques (1930) found it a "common breeder in the Port Moller region." On May 29, 1936, we saw a single male at Ugashik River. We had seen a pair at Chisik Island, Tuxedni Bay, in Cook Inlet on May 6, and, on May 9, another pair was observed at Anchor- age. According to Osgood (1904), "McKay found the species breeding at Nushagak and took a number of specimens there in May and June, 1881." Gabrielson noted a few along Kvichak River July 23, 1940, including one brood of young. He also noted a male in the Barren Islands on June 13. Mallards undoubtedly nest on various islands south of the Alaska Peninsula. On August 29, 1936, I saw two mallards on a pond on Simeonof Island, in the Shumagins, and the local rancher said they nest there. On Afognak Island, September 2, 1936, 14 mallards were seen in a lily pond. These could have been migrants, yet mallards undoubtedly nest there because they are known to nest on Kodiak, nearby. As stated above, mallards winter throughout the territory under discussion. Localities where considerable numbers have been reported are Unalaska, Kanaga, and Unimak. We were told by natives of Unimak that when the bays and lakes freeze over, the mallards move to the unfrozen streams in the interior of the island and return to the lowlands only when the ice has disappeared. In the summer and fall of 1936 there was an unusually large run of salmon up the streams of Unimak Island; at that time, mallards and other ducks, we were told, assembled there to feed on free-floating salmon eggs. 76 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Anas strepera: Gadwall The gadwall has been considered to be "accidental" in Alaska, on the strength of two records for the Pribilof Islands. It was, therefore, of particular interest to find that this bird nests regularly in parts of Alaska. On May 16 and 17, 1937, several pairs of gadwalls were found on the Copper River Flats, near Cordova, not far from the mouth of Eyak River. Evidently, these were paired birds that were preparing to nest. Alfred M. Bailey (1927) reports a pair at Bartlett Cove, Glacier Bay, on August 9, and "felt sure" he had identified a band at Holkham Bay on September 25, though the light was poor. Cahalane (1943) reports that two gadwalls were shot on Oc- tober 2, 1940, at the head of Terror Bay, Kodiak Island. Chase Littlejohn says "A few of these ducks were shot by me while on their way north in the spring at Dolgoi Island, near Belkofski. They were the only ones seen." On the north side of Alaska Peninsula, where suitable marsh- lands are present, the gadwall is fairly common. On May 27 to 29, 1936, they were common on the tidal marsh and on numerous ponds adjacent to Ugashik River where they were courting and preparing to nest. Generally, a female would be seen flying about, pursued by two or more males. On May 28, this species was recorded as "the principal duck seen," and on May 29 "they and the scaups made up most of the duck population." A pair was collected for specimens. At Port Moller, residents assured us that gadwalls nest plenti- fully in the lakes upriver from Nelson Lagoon. On May 8, 1925, I observed 4 gadwalls near the shore of a lagoon at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island ; 2 of these were taken for specimens. On May 21, five gadwalls were seen among the ponds on Hazen Point in Izembek Bay ; gadwalls were seen repeatedly as late as July 25. Beals and Longworth, in a field report, mention that they saw 4 gadwalls on Unimak Island, March 19, 1941, 1 of which was collected. Local residents considered it to be uncommon. Gabrielson reports a male and female on a lake at Izembek Bay, June 4, 1942. During the fall and winter periods of 1943 and 1944, he found them to be common among the Kodiak- Afognak Islands. Turner (1886) records a specimen taken at Unalaska Island in December, 1878, and states that they are "abundant" along the Yukon Delta district in summer. Nelson does not mention it, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 77 however, and we did not see this duck in the Hooper Bay district in 1924. Taber found 5 males and 4 females at Adak Island during the winter of 1945-46. Stejneger says (1887), "Reported by Dybowski as taken on Bering Island." Hartert (1920) mentions a specimen shot on Copper Island on May 13, 1911. Thus, we find (as is the case with a number of species that re- quire lowland marsh) that this duck nests along the lowlands on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, possibly also on Unimak Is- land, but it occurs only as a straggler in the Aleutians to the west. Anas acuta: Pintail Russian, Commander Islands: Vostrochvost (Stejneger) This widely distributed bird is not common in the Aleutian district, but it does occur here and there throughout the entire area. It is known to occur on Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935; Howell 1948), where Gabrielson found it plentiful in fall and winter. Cahalane (1944) observed pintails in several localities in the Katmai region in the autumn of 1940, but his report implies that this species is not plentiful. Gabrielson noted a female on Naknek River on July 19, 1940, and on July 23 several females, evidently with broods, were noted on Kvichak River. He also found it at Unimak, Cold Bay, Izembek Bay, Shumagin Islands, and Kodiak-Afognak Islands; they were rather plentiful in the last-mentioned localities in fall and winter. Einarsen (1922) found pintails nesting near Ugashik in 1922, and Jaques (1930) found it to be a common breeding bird around Port Moller in June 1928. On May 23, 1936, we saw 2 pintails near Dillingham, Bristol Bay, and, on May 26, 2 more pintails were seen near Snag Point. On May 27 to 29, an occasional pair was seen on the flats near Ugashik River, where they evidently were nesting. Residents on Unimak Island stated that pintails nest there, and this was verified by my observations in 1925. In that year, they were first seen at Urilia Bay on April 30. On May 4, Donald Stevenson saw 10 males flying about, and on May 17 a pair was seen at St. Catherine Cove. Pintails were also present on Izembek Bay, and on June 30, near Point Grant, in the midst of nesting Arctic terns and Pacific eiders, a nest of eight eggs was found. Near Frosty Peak, a female that obviously had eggs, or young, nearby was observed. Turner did not observe the pintail in the Aleutians during the 78 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE nesting season, and we found that the natives 'did not recognize pictures of the bird, yet the bird assuredly occurs in these is- lands. We noted pintails on a lake on Umnak Island May 30, 1937, and on August 23, 1937, Steenis obtained a specimen there. On June 16, 1936, C. S. Williams reported a pair on Amukta Is- land. Laing (1925) saw a small flock at Kuluk Bay, Adak Island, April 13, 1924. We noted a pair among the lakes at the south- east point of Kiska Island on June 5, 1937, and, in the same vicin- ity, on June 21 we saw two males and a female. Remains of a pintail were found in a bald eagle's nest on the north side of Little Sitkin Island, and, on June 17, 1937, a pair was observed on Alaid Island, of the Semichi group, which is near the western end of the chain. On Attu Island, Wilson (1948) found three pairs that he thought to be nesting. Undoubtedly, all these records denote nesting throughout the Aleutian chain, though successful nesting in recent years may be adversely affected by the blue-fox industry. Stejneger (1887) says pintails are very numerous on Bering Island, but less common on Copper Island. Turner did not think pintails wintered in the Aleutians; how- ever, he recorded them at Unalaska as late as November. More- over, Beals and Longworth (field report) state that pintails are plentiful in winter in the vicinity of Unimak Island. On March 1, a flock of 25 was recorded; on March 16, 2 were noted; on March 26, a flock of 23 was noted. Moreover, Taber observed a flock of 48 that were wintering at Adak, in 1945-46. Anas falcata: Falcated Teal Rowland Wilson (1948) reports an unusual observation, in part, as follows: On May 23 and 24, 1945, Lt. C. L. Stone and I observed a male and female of this handsome species, together with two Tufted Dueks and three male and four female Greater Scaups, on a little "pothole" pond inland from Murder Point [Attu Island]. We had abundant opportunity to watch the teals, for they were not shy. On the 24th we saw the male diving several times. He went under rather awkwardly, giving us the impression that he was not used to such activity. The female did not dive while we watched her. . . . Possibly they had been blown in from the west by a recent storm. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 79 Anas crecca: Common Teal Anas crecca nim'ia Attu: Cheerrh-ooli (obviously the Russian name) Atka: Krech-cheer-tha (derivation from Russian is at least suggested by the middle syllable) Ataxciyax (Jochelson — probably the true Aleut name) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschirok (Stejneger) It is now well established that the breeding species of teal throughout the Aleutian chain is Anas crecca. During our expedi- tions, with only one exception, when a close view of males was possible, or when specimens were collected,- the bird proved to be the common teal. Beals and Longworth collected a male at Uni- mak Island, June 11, 1941. This is the easternmost point for which we have a record of this bird. Swarth (1934) records 3 specimens, 2 males and 1 female, taken on Akutan Island, May 24, 1927. We found these teals common throughout the Aleutian chain, and they are to be found on most of the islands where suitable habitat is available. Bent lists a specimen collected by Lucien M. Turner on Atka Island, June 28, 1879, and one taken by J. Hobart Egbert on Kiska Island, July 14, 1904. He also states that in 1911 his party collected "quite a series" of speci- mens in the western and central islands, and every male proved to be this form. Laing (1925) records two males taken at Adak Island, April 13, 1924. On our own expeditions, several specimens were taken, including males on Kagalaska, July 4, 1936, and on Amchitka, July 24, 1936. Gabrielson noted a pair of common teals on Amukta Island, June 25, 1940 ; he saw about a dozen on Amchitka, June 28, and saw others at Tanaga, Ogliuga, Atka, Ulak, Kavalga, Segula, and Adak. These teals are the most abundant fresh-water ducks in the Aleutians. Broods of young were seen on the small islands, Ogliuga and Skagul, and two broods were seen on Kanaga. On July 7, 1937, we found a nest of seven fresh eggs on Amchitka. On July 3, 1936, a female with two downy young were seen in a shallow grassy pond on Adak Island. The natives said that teals nest on Attu, and a male was seen on Agattu, June 15, 1937. On August 23, 1937, I counted at least 42 teals on a lake near Nikol- ski Village, Umnak Island, and Steenis, on the same day, saw a greater number. Pairs were seen on various other islands, and it is certain that they nest throughout the length of the Aleutian chain. Stejneger (1887) reported the European (common) teal as an 80 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE abundant visitor on Bering Island, but less common on Copper Island. The species also occurs in the Pribilof Islands. Apparently, while nesting, the teals are less susceptible to the predations of the blue fox than are most other waterfowl, though the chief of Atka Village declared that they were much more numerous in early days. They generally occupy shallow, weedy ponds, though they also spend much time on the beaches — some- times on boulder beaches. They feed extensively along the beach margin and are often found on salt water. This was noted par- ticularly on Ogliuga Island. The nest found on Amchitka Island, July 7, 1937, was situated in the dense stand of Elymus border- ing the ocean beach, and the female repeatedly was observed feeding on this open beach. Cottam and Knappen (1939) have reported on the contents of five stomachs of this species, and say that "three out of four birds taken in coastal Alaska had fed almost exclusively on soft- bodied crustaceans." The authors felt that the high percentage of animal matter (80.2 percent) was probably not typical and would not be maintained in a larger series of stomachs. However, our observations on the feeding habits of these teals in the Aleu- tians are in accord with these findings from the stomach analyses. Evidently, the common teal winters in the Aleutians. We were assured of this by the natives of Attu and Kanaga, and residents of Unimak also stated that teals winter there. Furthermore, Donald Stevenson, who spent several winters in the Aleutians, furnished positive evidence of it, for in his field reports he said, in part (referring to Unalaska Island), They were again noted here Nov. 2, 1920, and at intervals in the month of November until November 21. Then again here January 7, 1921, to January 31, 1921. Being often observed feeding in small pools of salt water along the beach after the cold weather had set in and had frozen the fresh water streams. . . . Existed in great numbers at Umnak Island, near Otter Point November 22, 1920, in small fresh water pond, and in large fresh water stream. . . . Observed about five hundred here Dec. 13, also noted here Dec. 18, 1920. Specimens taken were in a fine fat condition. In 1943, Cahn noted 1 common teal at Unalaska Island on Oc- tober 14, and 2 on December 2. Taber noted a flock of 47 at Clam Lagoon, Adak Island, from November 1945 to late January 1946. Sutton and Wilson saw a male at Attu, March 5, 1945. Anas carolinensJs: Green-winged Teal The common teal occupies the Aleutian Islands, and the green- winged teal occupies the Alaska Peninsula. There is some over- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 81 lapping in range. On June 5, 1937, Steenis and I observed 3 teals at a small pond on Kiska Island — at least 2 were males in bright plumage. One was clearly A. crecca, with a plain breast and a light-colored scapular streak. The other bird lacked the scapular streak, and plainly showed the crescent on the side of the breast. We both saw these markings, but we failed to note the markings of the third bird. It may have been a female. It is interesting to note that both species of teals occur on the Pribilofs. Cahn, writing of his observations at Unalaska Island during the war years, says of the green-winged teal : "Observed in every month of the year except August in four years of observations ; inhabits the same area as A. crecca, but more common." Taber did not record it as being present in winter at Adak. Because of the difficulty of identification in the field, and be- cause females of the two forms are indistinguishable, even with specimens, there is confusion about their ranges and the extent of territorial overlapping. Until more collecting is done, and be- cause specimens of nimia east of Unimak are lacking, we may assume for the present that the birds of Alaska Peninsula are chiefly carolinensis. They occur in suitable locations along the peninsula. In 1925, they were noted on Unimak Island and Izembek Bay. In 1936, we were informed by residents that teals nest up the river from Nelson Lagoon, and we saw at least two teals at Ugashik River on May 29, 1936. Osgood (1904), how- ever, found teals scarce in the interior of the base of Alaska Peninsula, and says, One old female was seen on the Nogheling River July 21, and no more appeared until we neared the coast on the lower Nushagak River. Immense flocks were seen in late September in the vicinity of Nushagak. McKay obtained several specimens at Nushagak and at Ugashik. The National Museum has a male green-winged teal that was taken at Nushagak, May 6, 1883, by Paul J. Kojevnikoff. Cahalane (1944) has observed the green-winged teal on the mainland only once positively : a flock of 12 was seen September 24, 1940, near the mouth of Savanoski River. Gabrielson saw several green-winged teals, obviously with broods, up the Kvichak River, July 23, 1940. On April 27, 1942, he positively identified 21 of these birds at King Cove, and later he saw many more at Cold Bay. Green-winged teals occur on Kodiak Island, according to Fried- mann (1935) and Howell (1948). Cahalane and Gabrielson found them to be numerous in the Kodiak-Af ognak area, but there are no records for the rest of the territory under discussion. 82 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Teals winter at Unimak Island, according to residents, and, according to Cahn, they winter as far west as Unalaska Island. Mareca penelope: European Widqeon Russian, Commander Islands: Svistsch or Svistun (Stejneger) Four specimens have been collected on the Pribilof Islands, and Dall (1873) records a specimen taken at Unalaska, October 12, 1871. He says it is "not uncommon among the ducks brought in by the native hunters of that locality." He considered it to be a winter visitor, "migrating about May 1st." On June 21, 1937, we found a pair at a lake back from the beach at the more southerly harbor on Kiska Island. As the two birds flew by, I clearly saw the buffy coloration on the head of the male. At that season of the year, a pair suggests nesting. Stejneger (1887) records this bird as being a visitor to the Commander Islands in migration. Mareca americana: American Widgeon The American widgeon, or baldpate, is rare in the Aleutian district. On May 27, 1936, 2 or 3 were observed on the flat marshes near Ugashik River, and 2 males were seen May 29. We saw none to the westward, though Gabrielson records seeing a male and a female on a pond near Izembek Bay on June 6, 1942, and saw others at Port Moller, July 7, 1946. Osgood (1904) mentions specimens taken by McKay at Cape Constantine and Ugashik in September 1881. Hine (1919) observed this duck occasionally in the Katmai Region in 1919, and he obtained specimens near the mouth of Katmai River. Friedmann (1935) records seeing the baldpate at Kodiak, and a specimen was taken. He also (1937) reports that bones of this duck were found in middens on Little Kiska Island. Gabrielson records that the species was "common" in the Kodiak-Afognak Islands in the fall and winter months of 1943 and 1944. Howell (1948) reports as follows for Kodiak: "Two were seen May 31, at Middle Bay, and one on June 16, at Bell's Flats," in 1944. Turner states that it is rarely seen on Attu Island. Finally, Stejneger (1887) found a dead bird of this species among the sand dunes of Bering Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 83 Spatula clypeata: Shoveler Attu: Koo-chu-tuh or Koo-chu-thoh Eussian, Commander Islands: Soksan (Stejneger, The natives of Attu Island seemed to know this duck and had a name for it — if their identification is correct. They recognized a picture, agreed on the spoon-shaped beak, and claimed that the shoveler nests on Attu Island. Stejneger (1887) considered it to be one of the rarer ducks on Bering Island, but he thought that it breeds there — hence, it would not be surprising to find it among the Near Islands. We did not find the shoveler in the Aleutians, but on May 29, 1936, a male was seen among some other ducks in a pond near Ugashik River on the peninsula. Two specimens were taken by McKay near Nushagak, on August 14, 1881, and on September 24, 1882. Cahalane (1944) records 1 bird seen by him, September 7, 1940, on Brooks River, and Gabrielson observed 2 at Morzhovoi Bay, June 21, 1940 — the westernmost point for which we have precise record. The shoveler is scarce in the Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula, and it is comparatively scarce on other parts of the Bering Sea coast. The only place where we found them in considerable num- bers was in the vicinity of Cordova, on the Copper River flats near the mouth of Eyak River. There, on May 16 and 17, 1937, we saw many of them engaged in courtship, evidently preparing to nest. Aythya americana: Redhead Attu: Ka-ve im'-much The A. 0. U. Check-List states that the redhead is a casual visitor on Kodiak Island, Alaska, and Friedmann (1935) men- tions a specimen taken there by Rutter. On June 16, 1936, I had a glimpse of a pair of ducks, identified as redheads, rising from a pond near the beach on Amukta Island. Upon arrival at Attu, Chief Hodikoff declared that a few ducks (like those in the picture of redheads that we showed him) nest on Attu and remain in winter. He gave us the native name, Ka-ve (head) im-much (round). He was certain of his identification. At the time, we were concerned only with the redhead, but be- cause of its similarity to the pochard, which occurs on the Pribi- lofs, it is possible that the Aleut chief was really referring to the Old World species, Nyroca ferina, and conceivably the birds that we noted on Amukta were also of that species. 84 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Aythya valisineria: Canvasback In 1925, I was told by a trapper that canvasbacks had been seen on Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island. It was thought at the time that he had confused the birds with some other canvas-backed type of duck. But the report is more plausible since Friedmann (1937) referred to this species — five humeri found in old middens at Dutch Harbor. The bird has also been recorded for the Pribi- lofs. No other records for canvasbacks were obtained. Aythya mania: Greater Scaup Aythya mania nearctlca Attu: Han-o ka-ve-too Russian, Commander Islands: Tschernik (Stejneger) Four specimens of this species, which were breeding birds, were collected by Donald Stevenson at Izembek Bay in June 1925. On geographic grounds, also, the scaup of this region should be A. marila nearctica, rather than A. afflnis. The American greater scaup was recorded from Kodiak Island by Friedmann (1935). Concerning this bird, Osgood (1904) says, "Scaup ducks, doubt- less this species, were seen in small flocks along the Nushagak River September 4 to 9. McKay took them in May and July at Nushagak and Ugashik." And again, he says (1901), "a flock of six scaup ducks were seen on a pond near Tyonek September 17." Cahalane records this duck on the Naknek River, where it was abundant, on September 28, 1940, and he found it to be common on Brooks Lake, September 9, though he did not see it in the more interior portions of the Katmai National Monument. He also said that they were fairly common in the Kodiak-Afognak area. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson observed four broods of greater scaups on the Kvichak River. In later years, he saw them in num- bers at Unimak, Atka, Kanaga, Umnak, Unalaska, Amchitka, Shumagin, Sanak, and Kodiak-Afognak Islands. We saw two greater scaups near Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7, 1936. On May 27-29, 1936, scaups were common, flying about in pairs, near Ugashik River. In June 1928, Jaques found them to be common near Port Moller. They were reported to be common near Chignik, maintaining their numbers better than other ducks in that vicinity. In 1925, I found scaups nesting in Izembek Bay. About the middle of May of that year, there were small bands in St. Catherine Cove, at Unimak Island, swimming on the salt water or on the small ponds on the shore, sometimes segregating in pairs. In the middle of June, they were particularly common FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 85 about Hazen Point, and they were seen elsewhere in Izembek Bay. On June 20, they were still flying about in pairs. On that date, a female was seen standing near a recently constructed nest cavity. On June 30, 3 nests were found on small islands near Point Grant ; 2 of these nests contained 9 and 10 eggs respectively. The number of eggs in the third nest was not recorded. On July 26, a nest of seven eggs was found on a gull island. Residents stated that scaups nest on Unimak Island. Scaups were noted at intervals throughout the Aleutian chain. Four or five were seen near Nikolski, Umnak Island, on May 30, 1937; 7, mostly males, were seen on Corwin Lake on Atka, June 22, 1936; several were noted on Amchitka, July 1937 ; a flock of 30 was seen on a lake on Kiska, July 26, 1936 (where half a dozen were seen on June 4, 1937) ; and several pairs were seen on Agattu Island in the middle of June 1937. Steenis observed four pairs and a female there, and other members of the party observed paired scaups. On June 15, 1937, on Agattu, I found a scooped- out nest cavity with a little down and some white breast feathers, which I thought to be a scaup nest. Austin H. Clark (1910) found this species to be rather common at Attu and Agattu. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) says, "Found breeding at Sanak, Ukamuk [Chirikof Island], and Morzhovoi Bay, each nest contained nine eggs. They congregate in large flocks in winter at Sanakh and remain so until spring, when they pair off and begin nesting." The Attu chief assured us that scaups nest on Attu and winter there. On Kanaga Island, also, we were assured that scaups are plentiful in winter, and that they become very tame around the dock. Taber found them wintering at Adak, and for Unalaska Island Cahn reports — An abundant winter inhabit-^ of all the larger bays, in common with the Harlequin ducks and white-winged scoters. The greatest numbers occur in December and January, and the species disappears entirely in April as a rule; May 3, 1946 is the latest recorded date. It returns again a few at a time, in September and October, gradually increasing in abundance. Sutton and Wilson found scaups wintering at Attu Island. At Unimak Island, March 1, 1941, Beals and Longworth ob- served two rafts, of at least 1,500 scaups each, on Swanson Lagoon, and a trapper assured them that these ducks spend the winter there. In several localities, mention was made of the scaup's habit of assembling near docks. In some cases, at least, fish offal appears 86 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE to be the attraction. This was definitely reported to be the case at False Pass, where the ducks gather at the cannery docks during the fishing season. Aythya affinis: Lesser Scaup Friedmann (1935) lists the lesser scaup in the avifauna of Kodiak Island on the basis of osseous remains found in middens. We did not identify this duck on our expeditions, and we as- sumed that the scaups observed were of the larger form. Aythya fuligula: Tufted Duck Howland Wilson (1948) added this species to the list of Aleu- tian birds, bearing out our assumption that it could easily occur among the western islands. He reports seeing 2 males and 2 fe- males in a little pothole, inland from Murder Point on Attu Is- land on May 23 and 24, 1945; he watched them for some time, and the "tufts of long, loose feathers which streamed down from the nape of each male" were noted in detail. Bucephala clangula: Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula americana Attu: Ha-no sakh-oi-a Russian, Commander Islands: Gogol (Stejneger, referring to the closely related European form). This may be the "whistler" amtdtux, given by Jochelson, for which no dia- lect was mentioned. Friedmann (1935) lists bones found in Kodiak middens, which he assigned to this subspecies on geographic grounds, and he mentions two specimens collected there by Fisher. On March 21, 1924, Laing (1925) observed three of these ducks at Uyak Bay of Kodiak Island. Gabrielson noted that this duck is plentiful in the Kodiak- Afognak area in fall and winter; he found it in the winter at Unalaska, Umnak, Kanaga, and Atka, and at King Cove and Cold Bay in spring and fall. I observed the goldeneyes in 1925 at Unimak Island. On April 29, 1925, I saw a pair flying over a lagoon at Urilia Bay, and on May 1, 1925, I saw a flock of about 10. On May 4, 1925, Donald Stevenson reported at least 200 on Peterson Lagoon. Identifica- tion could not be positive on all of these instances, but they were assumed to be americana on the basis of known distribution. Friedmann identified a goldeneye humerus in middens of Dutch Harbor, and Laing (1925) observed nine goldeneyes at Unalaska, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 87 March 21 and 22, 1924 ; however, those were immature birds, or females, and identification of the species was doubtful. Turner, also, records this duck for Unalaska in December, and he says that it winters there. Cahn reports the goldeneye for Unalaska Island, saying, Strictly a winter visitor, present in considerable numbers but never in large flocks. Goldeneyes drift in by one's and two's in late October (October 24, 1943), and are common in the larger bays during the period of December through February, at which time they disappear far more abruptly than they arrive. April 11, 1946, is the latest recorded date; this is unusually late. Laing observed an unidentified goldeneye at Adak Island, and at Attu Island he positively identified two adult males that "were found ardently courting in a flock of six." Taber found goldeneyes wintering at Adak Island in 1945-46. When shown colored illustrations, the Attu chief picked out the common goldeneye and said it was plentiful there in winter, arriving in November and (he thought) leaving early in March. Sutton and Wilson found them wintering at Attu. Stejneger (1885) reported that the European common goldeneye occurred at the Commander Islands in winter in small numbers. Because there are so few specimens, and because racial identi- fication cannot be ascertained in the field, it would be possible that the Old World form (keeping in mind that it is recorded from the Pribilofs) occurs in the western Aleutians and has not been detected. In the case of this form, we are leaning heavily on assumed geographical distribution. Bucephala islandica: Barrow's Goldeneye We saw several Barrow's goldeneyes at Seward, May 5, 1936; at least 12 at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6; 2 at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7; and 1 male at Kodiak Island, May 13. Friedmann (1935) has given a number of records for Kodiak Island, and Gabrielson noted them in winter and fall at Unalaska and Kodiak-Afognak Islands. With regard to the base of Alaska Peninsula, Osgood (1904) reported — One was seen on the Nogheling River July 20, and one was killed there some days later; another was shot by W. L. Fleming on a small pond near the head of Lake Clark July 28. Several immature birds were killed at the mouth of the Chulitna River August 4. Rather common at intervals along the Chulitna River August 12 to 17; generally seen in family parties of 6 to 10. Near Swan Lake a flock of about 15 was seen feeding on a shal- low lake in company with a flock of 10 swans. Seen almost daily in pairs or small flocks along the Malchatna and upper Nushagak September 3 to 6. 88 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Cahalane (1944) found this duck "numerous in the upper por- tion of the Naknek River, September 4." They were also abundant in Amalik, Kaflia, and Kukak Bays on October 5 and 7. Hine (1919) considered it to be a common species in the Katmai Bay area, and he obtained a specimen there. Thus, it would appear that the Barrow's goldeneye is confined pretty much to the basal part of Alaska Peninsula, adjacent is- land groups, and mainland areas as a breeding bird. The Ameri- can common goldeneye, on the other hand, is the form generally encountered to the westward, as a migrant. There are no data to show that any goldeneye nests west of the more or less tree- covered base of Alaska Peninsula. Bucephala albeola: Bufflehead Attu : Ckirr-u-num Sakh-oi-a Atka : Mith-i-me-thruh The bufflehead occurs sparsely throughout the Aleutian district. Friedmann's data (1935) show that this duck is rather common on Kodiak Island, and that it nests there. Osgood (1904) reports that "two specimens were seen at Cold Bay October 17 among some ducks killed on the bay by natives. One was taken at Nushagak by McKay, May 2, 1882." We noted at least six buffleheads at Port Chatham, Kenai Penin- sula, May 6, 1936. At Chignik, we were told that buffleheads are seen there in autumn. Gabrielson has seen them at Cold Bay, at the Shumagin Islands, and at Sanak Island. We found two females in a pond at Ikatan Peninsula, Unimak Island, May 19, 1936. Beals and Longworth noted one at False Pass, March 7, 1941, and four on Ikatan Peninsula on April 15, 1941. Turner (1888) says that this duck occurs in winter at Unalaska, where he obtained specimens, and he adds that they are rare to the westward, where they are present only in winter. Gabriel- son found them in winter at Unalaska, Atka, Amchitka, and Umnak. Over a period of 4 years, Cahn saw only one bufflehead at Unalaska Island (on February 22, 1944). Ray Clark, storekeeper on Umnak Island, said that butterballs (buffleheads) remain there in winter. Wetmore (manuscript notes) says that R. H. Beck saw a pair of buffleheads in a pond back of Atka village on June 13, 1911; Laing (1925) saw "fully thirty-five" in a small lagoon on Adak Island on April 11, 1924. And Taber found the species wintering at Adak, where there were 32 birds noted in a census on January 13, 1946. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 89 The Attu chief stated that his island is within the wintering range of the bufflehead, but he insisted that they also nest on Attu, "up high." Stejneger (1887) reports the bufflehead as "an accidental visi- tor during the winter of 1882-83" in the Commander Islands. Incidentally, this bird is mentioned in a number of records for the Pribilof Islands. Clangula hyemalis: Oldsquaw Attu : Ang-lach Atka: A-lang-ach Unimak: Alg-nach' Russian, Commander Islands: Sofka (Stejneger) Russian, Yana region: Savka (Birula) Chukchi : Pojgochek, male Achak, female (Palmen) The oldsquaw is fairly common, especially in migration, and has been reported by most writers on southwestern Alaska. It occurs on Kodiak, and Osgood (1904) reports it from various places at the base of Alaska Peninsula and the Bristol Bay region. Einarsen (1922) reports several of these birds nesting near Ugashik in 1922. Laing (1924) counted as many as 200 at Dolgoi Island, March 23, 1924, and apparently he saw it in many other unidentified localities. He collected a specimen at Kodiak, March 21, 1924. Dall (1873) considered it to be abundant east of Unalaska. We noted the bird at various points : 2 migrating flocks on the Gulf of Alaska, May 2, 1936; 150 birds at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7 ; a flock of 30 in Shelikof Strait, May 13 ; 1 bird in Nushagak Bay, May 23; and 2 birds on the flats at Ugashik River, May 27. They are said to arrive at Chignik "late in the fall." The oldsquaw is common in migration along the Alaska Penin- sula and adjacent islands, but we were unable to establish nesting records. They are rather common in the Aleutians at certain seasons, especially in winter. In 1925, I found them to be numerous about False Pass in the latter part of April and in May. One was seen in St. Catherine Cove as late as May 20, but none was seen after that date. Beals and Longworth (field report) re- corded them at False Pass and neighboring points on January 12, 13, and 19, 1941, and they observed them daily through March and as late as April 10. Wetmore (manuscript notes) saw 2 birds at Unalaska Island 90 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on June 7 and 11, 1911, and McGregor (1906) collected 1 female in worn plumage on July 20, 1901, at Tigalda Island. Cahn often found them wintering at Unalaska Island; the earliest date was November 3, 1943, and the latest date was April 19, 1946. Taber found them wintering at Adak. We did not see many oldsquaws in the Aleutians; however, at Atka Island we were told by the natives that they formerly had nested on that island, but not "since the foxes came." The natives said that these birds winter on Atka and Kanaga in large num- bers. The Atka chief assured us that these ducks nest on Amchitka — he stated that although he had seen the young, he had not seen any nests. Kiska Island appears to be one of the favorite localities for the oldsquaw. This island was mentioned by Dall as the western limit of its range. We saw several birds there as late as June 4 and 5, 1937, and Wetmore reported them to be fairly common near the entrance to Kiska Harbor, June 17 to 21, 1911. We also found oldsquaw remains in two bald-eagle nests on that island; oldsquaw remains were also found on West Unalga, and in eagle nests on Rat and Little Sitkin Islands. Dall (1874) said that the oldsquaw was resident as far west as Kiska, but that it was not abundant. We learned from the Attu natives that it nests on Agattu and is abundant in the Near Islands in winter. This is substantiated by the report by Sutton and Wilson on Attu. The oldsquaws wintered there, and after March 4 they were observed courting. Turner (1886) said that few of these birds nested in the Aleutians, but that many of them wintered there. In 1887, Stejneger reported oldsquaws "breeding numerously on Bering Island." Gabrielson also ob- served them wintering as far west as Atka. To sum up, Turner's statement (see above) applies very well to the Aleutian district as a whole. Histrionicus histrionicus: Harlequin Duck Attu : Kagh'-i-ach Atka: Kagh'-a-thi-ga Unalaska : Kang-a-rich Unimak: Kang-ath'-a-gich Russian, Commander Islands: Kamenuschka (Stejneger) This is the most abundant duck in the Aleutian Islands. We found harlequin ducks at practically every island that we visited, singly sometimes, generally in small groups, and occasionally in larger flocks. It is safe to say that, at one time or another, harlequin ducks occur at every island, large or small, from Uni- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 91 mak to Attu. Stejneger has reported them to be common in the Commander Islands. They were also found east of the Aleutians— at Amak Island, at Izembek Bay, and at False Pass. In the Shumagin group, we observed them at Unga, Nagai, and Simeonof Islands. They were at King Cove, the Barren Islands, Afognak, Port Chatham on Kenai Peninsula, and at Seward. Osgood (1904) observed them along the Egegik River and "about the mouths of the larger streams that empty into Becharof Lake." He found them to be common at Kanatak and Cold Bay, and he mentions specimens taken by McKay and Johnson at Igushik and Nushagak. Cahalane (1944) reported harlequins in large numbers in the general region of Katmai National Monument in the fall of 1940, and Hine (1919) considered them to be one of the most common ducks in the Katmai Bay area in the summer of 1919. Cahalane also recorded them as being abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak group in the fall of 1940, where Gabrielson noted 200 on June 16, 1940. W. Sprague Brooks (1915) observed them on April 19, 1913, at the Semidi Islands, and on April 22, 1913, he saw them at King Cove. Although these birds occur on the north side of Alaska Penin- sula, they are more common on the south side, which is more rugged. Evidently, these birds nest on Alaska Peninsula. On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted a pair flying along Kittiwake Creek, between Brooks and Naknek Lakes, and Friedmann (1935) states that Bretherton found them breeding in June on Kodiak Island. In the spring of 1925, I often observed two pairs along a stream just north of Aghileen Pinnacles, near the western end of Alaska Peninsula. Eventually, on June 3, only the males were seen; presumably, the females were nesting. On July 16, 1911, Wetmore (manuscript notes) observed a fe- male and a group of young in King Cove. It is difficult to determine the status of the harlequin ducks in the Aleutians. The natives insisted that they nest along streams and that their nests are very hard to find. In way of substantia- tion, we found no nests and no broods of young. However, we found these birds on islands that had no suitable nesting streams. On the other hand, Austin H. Clark (1910) reported: "It was common about Atka, where 1 or 2 were seen inland on a small stream ; on Attu and Agattu it was also numerous on the streams as well as along the coast." Turner (1886) described a deserted nest on Unalaska Island, in a hollow formed by two blocks of rock. A native assured him 92 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE that it was the nest of a harlequin duck. Here, again, our own experience was baffling. Though there were numerous cliffs and many available sites for nesting along the rocky shores, we saw no young brood throughout the two summers of observations. Wetmore, however, had pertinent observations at Kiska Island in 1911, when he says (manuscript notes) that some of them were already nesting along the base of a high rocky cliff, as they seemed very anxious while I was along there, those on the water whistling and swimming in small circles. I saw one or two females slipping quietly away from shore ahead of me, but flushed none from the beach itself. Beals and Longworth found harlequin ducks wintering at Unimak Island, and stated that they nest there. Elsewhere in the Aleutians, natives said that they are more numerous in winter than in summer. Stejneger (1885) found no evidence of nesting in the Com- mander Islands, and stated that the natives knew of no nesting. From these various observations, it can be concluded that the harlequin ducks nest on the Alaska Peninsula, possibly rather commonly; that they also nest in numbers unknown in the Aleu- tian Islands; that immature birds, various nonbreeders, and males gather for the summer in these waters; and that they winter there in great numbers. We had little opportunity to study food habits, and it must be assumed that, in the salt water, it consists of marine inverte- brates. The teacher of the native school at Atka informed us that in the autumn of 1936, when there was a large run of salmon up the streams of Atka Island, harlequin ducks were seen on the streams, presumably feeding on salmon eggs. However, we have no certain data on this subject. Polysticta stelleri: S+eller's Eider Chukchi: Kataadlin (Palmen) This little eider of the Bering Sea region occurs abundantly along the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain at certain seasons — particularly in winter. It is recorded as far east as Kodiak, where Friedmann (1935) lists many specimens and ob- servational records, including some bones from middens. Dall (1873) says it was observed in the Shumagins "in March, and in the summer months." The same writer (Dall 1874) reports them as wintering at Sanak Island, but he considered Unalaska to be the center of abundance for this species. He remarked upon the irregularity of their occurrence, because he had found Steller's eider, together with the Pacific eider, to be numerous at Unalaska FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 93 in May 1872, however in May 1873 he did not see a single one of either species in that locality. Osgood (1904) considered the Steller's eider to be common about Bristol Bay, and he mentions specimens collected by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak and Ugashik. On October 4, 1940, Cahalane (1944) observed a group of 6 in Amalik Bay, and he saw 6 again (perhaps the same group) the next day. Gabriel- son noted 2 males at Morzhovoi Bay June 21, 1940, and collected 1, which was not in breeding condition. In 1936, we observed several sizable flocks in Nelson Lagoon. In 1925, I found this duck to be rather common in Izembek Bay. On May 17, 1925, there were small groups at St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island, and on May 20 about 200 were seen there, as well as several bands offshore in Bering Sea. Several flocks, totaling at least 300 birds, were spending the summer in Izembek Bay; they used Glen Island, near its entrance, as their home- ground. These were immature birds of both sexes, though there was an occasional one in adult male plumage. One male in adult plumage was collected on June 17. The testes were very small. None of the birds were seen on the adjacent marshlands, and there was no evidence of nesting. Turner (1886) testifies to the presence of the Steller's eider among the Aleutians in winter, even to the western end of the chain. Stejneger (1887) said that they wintered in the Com- mander Islands in "countless numbers," arriving early in Novem- ber and remaining until after the middle of May. Friedmann (1937) has recorded five humeri of this duck from middens on Little Kiska Island. Beals and Longworth observed them often in January, March, and April, 1941, and saw them as late as April 25, at False Pass. Although we did not find the Steller's eider nesting, older rec- ords furnish rather good evidence of nesting on the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian chain. A. C. Bent (1925) records some notes sent to Major Bendire in 1892 by Chase Littlejohn, which in- cluded a statement that "a few were nesting at Morzhovoi Bay in June." Dall (1873) writes of the pairing of these ducks at Unalaska and describes a nest found on Amaknak Island, May 18, 1872. It contained a single egg. Turner (1886) saw a few of these ducks at the western end of Attu Island in July 1880, and the natives told him that the species nested sparingly on Agattu Island. Judging by the information available to us, we must recognize the strong probability that at one time the Steller's eider nested 94 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian chain (though undoubtedly in small numbers), and that it wintered there in great numbers. It is also clear that there has been a great diminution in num- bers. On our two expeditions in 1936 and 1937, we were in the general region early enough to have observed these ducks before all of them had left their wintering grounds. We saw very few, and those that we saw were on the north side of Alaska Penin- sula. We saw none in the Aleutian chain. We found the natives of Attu Island — who have had only limited contact with the white man — to be well versed in their local fauna, much more so than natives farther east. These Attu natives did not recognize pic- tures of the Steller's eider and declared that it does not occur there, even in winter. They could be mistaken ; however, if we accept their testimony there must have been a great decline in numbers since 1880, when natives told Turner that these birds nest "sparingly" on Agattu Island. A. C. Bent (1925) considers the principal migration route in the fall "southward along the Siberian coast of Bering Sea to their winter homes in the Kurile, Commander and Aleutian islands." It is probable that the migration along the Siberian coast is the greater one, but if the information furnished by the Attu Islanders proves correct (and since we know these birds do winter in the eastern Aleutians), it is unlikely that the Siberian birds go to the Aleu- tians. On the other hand, we now know that there are large nesting populations on the American shores — at Hooper Bay and Nelson Island — and we have observations pointing out that the eastern Aleutians and parts of Alaska Peninsula, even Kodiak Island, are the principal concentration points in winter. In view of these facts, we must conclude that there is also a southward migration down the Alaskan coast of Bering Sea to the eastern Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula, and that the majority of the birds wintering in the Aleutians nest on the Alaskan coast. Somateria mollisslma: Common Eider Somateria mollissima v. nigra Attu: Kaf-segh'-ich, male Chd-is, female Ku-ku-toch, young Atka: Ka-sam'-ich, adult (sex?) Ku-ku-toch, young Kasimax (Jochelson — dialect not given) Russian (?), Copper Island: Pistrak (Stejneger) Chukchi : Kupuken, male Emngi, female (Palmen) Common eiders were observed at practically every island of the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 95 Aleutian chain and are as universally distributed as the western harlequin duck, though not so abundant. Apparently, they are not plentiful on the Commander Islands, for Stejneger (1887) says that they breed in "very limited numbers in a few places on Copper Island, only occasionally flying over to Bering Island, round the shore of which a few may be seen in winter." In the Aleutians, we saw these birds in small groups, generally paired, and they nest, or try to nest, throughout the Aleutian chain. Blue-fox raising has seriously interfered with nesting, on certain islands. Nesting of common eiders was determined for the following islands : Attu — quite a number nesting on rocky islets in Massacre Bay. Agattu — preparing to nest. Semichi — nesting on islets in a lake. Buldir — nesting on the beach (no foxes present). Chugul, Little Kiska, Kiska — nesting reported by Wetmore in 1911. Amchitka — nesting on offshore rocks and preparing to nest on beach. Ogliuga — plentiful, many young birds seen. Aiktak, Kavalga, Ulak, and Tanaga — nesting reported by Gab- rielson. Little Tanaga, Kanaga, Adak, Aso, Igitkin, Salt, Atka, Chu- ginadak. Baby Islands — nesting on Adokt and Excelsior (no foxes pres- ent). These are the nestings actually observed. The birds were ob- served at many other islands, where they were probably nesting. Were it not for the predations of introduced blue foxes, they undoubtedly would nest on practically all islands. In 1925, I found nesting groups in Izembek Bay, Alaska Penin- sula (particularly on Glen Island and islets near Point Grant), as well as on a gull island far out in the bay. On May 22, 1936, we found flocks of common eiders in Nelson Lagoon, and in one place I counted 111 males on the beach. Residents said that they nest abundantly on some grass-covered sand islands there. Os- good (1901) mentions a young bird and a set of eggs secured by T. H. Bean in July 1880 at Chugachik Bay (Kachemak Bay). In 1936, we saw them in Ugashik River, but we did not remain long enough to determine their nesting status. Thus, we have a fairly accurate and continuous record of nesting from Bristol Bay westward to Attu Island. 96 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On the south side of Alaska Peninsula, our observations are more scattered. Common eiders are known to nest as far east as Kodiak, and at Chisik Island, in Cook Inlet, we observed at least 12 pairs in the spring of 1936. The local game warden assured us that they nest on Duck Island nearby, and on May 13, 1937, several common eiders were seen in Icy Straits — the farthest east that we had observed this species. Mrs. Frank C. Hibben (1942, p. 182) found them nesting in Glacier Bay, the most easterly nesting record for southern Alaska. Gabrielson observed about 12 common eiders at Kodiak on June 14, 1940 ; at least 40 birds and 1 nest were seen in the Semidi Is- lands on June 18; and a few were seen at Morzhovoi Bay on June 21. As might be expected, companies of immature birds (nonbreed- ers) spend the summer in the waters along Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians. Furthermore, this is the principal wintering ground for the species; they do not venture farther south in any great numbers. Nesting Habitat These eiders utilize a variety of nesting sites. Probably they would prefer low islands of gentle slopes (such as the sand is- lands of Izembek Bay) , where they can nest in the grass. In such places, they nest both on the slopes and on the beach. Similar situations may be found in the Aleutians — the beach of Buldir Island is an example. There are few places in the Aleutians where they can nest with safety on the principal shorelines be- cause of the introduced blue fox. We found a few birds nesting on the shores at Amchitka and Agattu, but, being adaptable, they now seek the grassy tops of offshore rocks and pinnacles, or islands in lakes, where they are protected by water. The natives assured us that they also nest on ledges of sheer cliffs, where foxes are unable to climb. Mortality Factors The blue fox is probably the most potent predator that the eiders face in the Aleutians. In addition to this introduced enemy, the northern bald eagle also obtains an occasional eider, but ap- parently it does not prey extensively on the species. In a total (taken during three seasons) of 466 food items that were identi- fied in 32 eagle nests and at a few perching places, only 8 common eiders are represented. In one of these instances, the eider had a nest within 10 feet of an eagle's perch, and it was to be expected that the eagle would eventually seize the bird. It is surprising that so few eiders are taken by the eagle, because this duck does not FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 97 appear to be agile on the wing and is present everywhere. Prob- ably the great variety of "sea birds" attract the eagle's attention more readily. Gulls and ravens are another potent factor in stabilizing the eider population, because they prey on the eggs and young. The raven is included here solely on the basis of fragmentary ob- servations elsewhere. But the glaucous-winged gull was observed at times to be active in raiding eider nests. There is an interest- ing relationship here that has been noted frequently. Gulls and eiders often nest on the same area. Presumably, this should give the gulls a better chance to rob the nests of their duck neighbors ; however, it does not appear to be that simple, and the situation deserves careful study. Assuredly, upon entering such a mixed nesting colony, one finds a number of eider nests already rifled ; yet, many others have not been disturbed. It is noticeable that human intrusion, which forces the eiders to leave hurriedly with- out covering the eggs, gives a splendid opportunity to the first passing gull, and the gulls readily take advantage of it. In 1925, in Izembek Bay, I found eiders nesting in the midst of a gull colony and found others nesting in a colony of terns. All these birds seek the same type of nesting terrain, regard- less of neighborly problems. During that season, an effort was made to reduce the hazard for nesting eiders by carefully cover- ing the disturbed nest with down, just as the bird would have done. So far as the results could be observed, this method was effective. One will sometimes find gull and eider nests in amaz- ingly close proximity, apparently with no detriment to the eider. After being hatched, the small duckling still faces danger from the gulls. A number of decimated broods were seen, and sometimes, as observed at Ogliuga Island, several families then join together in a band. But in spite of all these nesting hazards, the eiders hold their own — they occupy the entire Aleutian district in fair numbers and are plentiful enough to utilize whatever nesting sites are available to them. Somateria spectabilis: King Eider Attu: Sakh'-uch Sdkux (Jochelson) Russian and Yukat, latitudes of the Yana: Turkan (Pleske) Chukchi: Jekadlin (Palmen) Information on the king eider is incomplete. We know that it spends the winter among the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagins, along the Alaska Peninsula, and as far east as Kodiak, where 98 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Friedmann (1935) has recorded specimens taken and many bones found in middens. He also found many bones in middens of Dutch Harbor and Little Kiska. In the wintering season, Gabriel- son found this eider at various points from Kodiak to Unalaska, and Hine (1919) obtained specimens near the mouth of Katmai River on June 25, 1919. Though we have relatively few published reports of king eiders from the winter range, these ducks must occur along the Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula and the ad- jacent seas in large numbers, judging by the striking northward migration we observed at Hooper Bay in the spring of 1924. The Attu chief appeared to recognize this duck; he gave us a name for it and stated that a few of them nest at Attu Island and that a few winter there. Judging by the relatively large number of bones found by Herbert Friedmann in the middens at Dutch Harbor and Kodiak, and considering the statement of the Attu chief that only "a few" winter there, the king eider evidently assembles in the greatest numbers among the eastern Aleutians and along the Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, I was told by local residents that many of these ducks winter at Isanotski Strait and at Wide Bay. Beals and Longworth (field report) observed king eiders at Isanotski Strait, Ikatan Peninsula, and at neighboring areas at intervals from early January to the latter part of May 1941; their numbers began to diminish in May, and at the end of May practically none were left. Four specimens were collected on January 13 and 24 and March 6. In winter, Cahn found the king eider to be more common than the common eider at Unalaska Island, and he says, present from early December to early March, usually in small flocks of three to six, or solitarily. Dec. 2, 1945, is the earliest record; April 3, 1944, the latest. The gizzard of a female found dead contained two specimens of the snail Callistoma. Though we do not have nesting records for the Aleutians — the Attu chief's statement about their nesting on that island may properly be questioned — a number of king eiders spend the sum- mer near Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, I observed a flock of about 200 birds (females and immature males) that spent the summer at Glen Island in Izembek Bay. Lampronetta f'ischeri: Spectacled Eider Information on this eider is disappointingly meager for the area under discussion. We saw none during the course of our expeditions to the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians. They are FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 99 considered to be winter residents there, and A. C. Bent (1925) says they occur sparingly east to Sanak Island. Friedmann (1934) records a humerus from native-village middens on Kodiak Is- land. Dall (1873) records it as rare at Unalaska as a winter visitor, leaving there in May for northern nesting grounds. Surprisingly enough, Turner (1886) says "This species occurs among all the Aleutian Islands, where it breeds and is a constant resident, but extremely shy." This certainly is not the case today. Dall's statement, above, would seem to be more credible. Melanitta deglandi: Whi+e-winged Scoter Melanitta deglandi dixoni Attu: Tru-pan-ach (obviously of Russian origin) Atka : T a-mu-ghd-luli Russian, Commander Islands: Turpan (Stejneger) The Kanddgix of Jochelson (dialect not indicated) may possibly refer to this duck. White-winged scoters have always been common along the southern Alaskan coasts in spring migration, and in the course of several voyages they have been noted regularly in late April and early May along the southeastern Alaskan waters, as well as farther west. In 1936, we noted a few at Seward on May 5; at least 20 were noted at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6; a few individuals were seen among the Barren Islands, May 10 and 11; and several were noted at Kodiak. They were common in Kupreanof Strait on May 13. In the fall of 1940, Cahalane found that scoters were numerous in the Kodiak-Afognak area. Early in September, he found them to be abundant in Naknek River, but none were seen by the end of September. He says (1944), "On the Pacific side of the area scoters were very numerous during the first half of October. They were 'abundant to very abundant' along the entire main- land coast from Katmai Bay to Point Nukshak." On June 16, 1940, Gabrielson noted 100 scoters near Whale Island. Osgood (1904) observed a flock of six scoters on Neekahweena Lake, about halfway up the Chulitna River on August 14. Chase Littlejohn, referring to the area between Kodiak Island and the west end of Alaska Peninsula in 1887-88, wrote, "Seen often during winter. I saw a number of birds at Ukanuk in summer where I am sure they breed but for want of time I did not succeed in finding their nests." In 1936, we found these ducks to be abundant in Nushagak 100 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay on May 26, and we observed several on lower Ugashik River on May 27 to 29. Jaques (1930) noted them as abundant in southeastern Alaska, May 1 to 9, 1928, and saw a few about Port Moller, May 22 to June 2, 1928. In 1925, I found them about the western end of Alaska Peninsula: At King Cove, April 25; plentiful at False Pass, April 28; a flock in Bering Sea near St. Catherine Cove (Unimak Island), May 17; and a few near Izembek Bay, May 20. As late as July 27 a few (possibly nonbreeders) were found along the coast in the vicinity of Izembek Bay. We did not observe white-winged scoters in the Aleutians west of Unimak Island, but Wetmore (manuscript notes) re- ported "a great raft" of these birds at Tanaga Island, June 25, 1911, and he noted small flocks in Kiska Harbor, June 17-21, 1911 ; Gabrielson noted a few at Akun, July 9, 1941. A. C. Bent (1925) suggests that the species may possibly breed in the Aleutians, basing his conjecture on these summer observations. This is possible, not only in the Aleutians but also on the peninsula, especially before the introduction of blue foxes on the islands. However, we have no nesting records for this entire district. According to general information and statements of natives, white-winged scoters winter in large numbers in the Aleutians and along the Alaska Peninsula. In 1941, Beals and Longworth (field report) recorded these ducks at intervals from January 12 to June 12 in the region about eastern Unimak and the adjacent Alaska Peninsula, and Gabrielson recorded wintering birds from Kodiak to Unimak. Cahn (1947) writing of Unalaska Island, says: "An abundant fall and winter visitor, especially from December to February." And Taber (1946) found a few of these birds wintering at Adak. Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed one scoter at Attu, March 17, 1945. G. H. Mackay in 1891 (quoted in Bent 1925) gave an interesting account of a mass migration of white- winged scoters to their nesting grounds, as observed in Rhode Island. He stated that it generally took place about the middle of May and that the daily flight was begun in the afternoon. We observed a similar occurrence on the other side of the continent when we visited Nushagak Bay in 1936. As we went up this bay on May 23, we saw large numbers of white-winged scoters assembled there, some of them flying about in pairs. The following is quoted from our field report; FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 101 On the evening of May 26, as we were going back out through Nushagak Bay, we observed flock after flock of white-winged scoters flying high in the air in goose-like formation, all heading up the bay in a general 'inland' direction. Some flocks contained 75 or 100 birds. It appeared that we were witnessing a movement, en masse, from a temporary salt-water meeting place to the inland nesting grounds. Melanitta perspicillata: Surf Scoter We observed this bird in considerable numbers in the spring, on the way to the Aleutians, along the coast of southeastern Alaska. They (apparently all males) were particularly numerous on the south side of Millbank Sound on April 25, 1936. One large flock arose from the water and strung out for a mile. It must have contained at least 1,000 birds. There were other smaller flocks. We saw 4 or 5 of these birds at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6, which was the last sighting. Surf scoters are known to occur at Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1944) says: "All of the surf scoters seen were on the Shelikof Strait coast of Katmai National Monument, Oct. 4 to 7. They were 'common' in Kinak Bay, but were abundant from Katmai to Amalik Bay and in Kaflia and Kukak Bays." Gabrielson also observed them at Kodiak in early spring and fall. Laing (1925) observed these birds in spring as far west as Dolgoi Island, south side of Alaska Peninsula, but he saw none west of there. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson noted four old males up the Kvichak River, and in winter he saw a few at Unimak. Wetmore (manuscript notes) reported, "A small flock of scoters, that I took to be this species, was seen June 4 in Lost Harbor, on Akun Island, and others were seen June 10 and 11, in Chernofski Harbor (Unalaska Island)." He reported none west of that point. Dall (1873), referring to the surf scoter under the name Melanitta velvetina, says: "Killed Oct 27th, 1871, at Unalaska, and noticed at intervals there during the winter. It was not seen at the Shumagins, though it may occur there. A winter visitor." Beals and Longworth reported a single male as False Pass on March 1, 1941, remarking that they saw this bird on several occasions. Cahn observed 3 scoters at Captain's Bay, Unalaska Island, April 3, 1943, and saw 1 on March 16, 1945 ; Taber saw 1 at Adak, December 14, 16, and 23, 1945. 102 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Austin Clark (1910) reports that "A few were seen at Attu and Agattu." Turner is the only observer who states that the surf scoter is "common among the Aleutian Islands," and is "abundant" in winter. He also says that "The surf duck is the svestu'n or whistler, of the Russians." There is much confusion in Turner's account. While the surf scoter does make a whistling sound with its wings, the vocal whistling is so characteristic of the common scoter that if any 1 of the 3 scoters should be so designated, it should be Oidemia n. americana. If sound of wings is the criter- ion, then deglandi is outstanding. Furthermore, Turner (1886) says of O. n. americana, "The male is noted for the gibbosity of pinkish-white near base of bill ; the lower edge of the swelling is deep red, gradually blending with the black of the rest of the bill." Assuredly, this fits perspicillata and not americana, and testifies to Turner's confusion on these species. In any case, the surf scoter is comparatively scarce today in the Aleutians. Oidemia nigra: Common Scoter Oidemia nigra americana Attu: Hoo-vai-ach Atka: Koo-ghang-ach Russian (reported at Unimak) : Swiss-toon (No doubt the svestun applied by Turner to perspicillata.) Laing (1925) observed the common scoter at Kodiak, March 21, 1924, and Friedmann (1935) has recorded a number of specimens from Kodiak Island, though we do not have nesting records from there. Cahalane (1943) noted a small number of these birds in Viekoda Bay in the fall of 1940, and he saw a larger number in Uyak Bay. He also reported that this scoter was numerous in the fall of 1940, along the coast from Katmai to Amalik Bay, but he reported that noticeably fewer birds were seen north of this area. A few were noted in Kaflia and Kukak Bays. Osgood (1904) reported a few broods of young on ponds near Lake Clark, and he adds "Females with young were also seen occasionally along the more sluggish courses of the Chulitna River." On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted adults on Naknek River, and he saw a female with three young on a small lake at Egegik. On July 23, he noted three broods up Kvichak River and noted the species again near Iliamna Lake on July 24 to 26. On May 23, 1936, we noted 15 or 20 males among large numbers FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 103 of white-winged scoters in Nushagak Bay. These probably were migrants. On May 29, several flocks were flying about at the mouth of Ugashik River, and on the adjacent marshes two pairs were discovered among the ponds, the males whistling. Ap- parently, these birds were preparing to nest. Jaques (1930) observed them "about Moller Bay and on fresh- water pools on the tundra, May 23 to June 20 — not common." This, too, suggests nesting. In 1925, I saw this species at the western end of Alaska Penin- sula — a flock of both sexes at King Cove, April 25, and a few at False Pass on April 28. On June 13, small bands were flying about on Izembek Bay, whistling. By June 20, the birds were generally paired; on June 13, a female, taken for a specimen, contained a perfectly formed, hard-shelled egg. There can be no question about these birds nesting at Izembek Bay, chiefly at Hazen Point. At Unimak Island we were told that this duck nests at Swanson Lagoon, which would be expected. Laing (1925) observed this duck at Dolgoi Bay, March 23, and says: "From Unalaska, where twenty-five were seen on March 26, the species was present in most of the harbors as far as Hitokappu in the southern Kurils, May 7. It was noted at Copper Island, Oest, Kamchatka, or Petropavlovsk." This statement indicates that it was noted along the Aleutian chain. Bishop (1900) recorded a number of these ducks off Unalaska, October 5, 1899. The Atka natives stated that this scoter winters sparingly in the Aleutians, while the Attu natives said that it was abundant there in winter. This is also borne out by Gabrielson's observa- tions on wintering birds from Kodiak to Atka. Beals and Longworth noted common scoters quite often in vari- ous places about the east end of Unimak Island from January 19 to June 12, 1941. Cahn (1947) reported for Unalaska Island: "Common in very large flocks in all the major bays from December to February, inclusive." Taber (1946), writing of Adak for the winter of 1945-46, states, "This was the most common bird of the area; it was seen in groups of 2 to 70 on the salt lagoon and the open sea." Sutton and Wilson (1946) found it wintering commonly at Attu. Bent (1925) records this bird as nesting in the Aleutian Islands ; this is verified by the A.O.U. Check-List (fourth edition) . It is possible that both statements are based on Turner's account. 104 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE But, considering (1) the apparent confusion of the three scoters by Turner (shown by his description and misplacement of the Russian names) ; (2) that Bent and his party did not observe it nesting there in 1911; (3) that we did not find any evidence of it nesting there on expeditions throughout the chain, when all islands were examined; and (4) that none of the Aleuts re- ported it nesting; then we must conclude that nesting of the common scoter in the Aleutian Islands as a whole must remain in doubt. Mergus merganser: Common Merganser Mergus merganser americanus Attu: Chu-vai-ach, Siss-uch Tan-num-ak-tum. sak-oi-a Chung-ung-e-koo-loo-ghearch Ha-Ka chai-ii-too Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj Krachal (Stejneger) Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens from Kodiak, as well as a number of eggs, which he said to be those of the common merganser, and he quotes Bretherton as saying that this duck nests on Kodiak. Osgood (1904) had very little information on this merganser for the base of the Alaska Peninsula, but he mentions an adult male killed at Becharof Lake. Cahalane (1944) observed several on the Naknek River on September 4, 1940. Jaques (1930) found flocks of these ducks (most were males) near Port Moller in late May and June, but he saw no sign of nesting. In 1936, we were informed by residents at Chignik that two kinds of mergansers occur there. A number of records of occurrence are available for Unalaska, probably because it has always been a prominent port where vessels put in during voyages through that region. Dall (1873) said several specimens were taken there on December 20, 1873, and he adds that none were seen in the Shumagins. Turner says they winter at Unalaska, but do not breed there. Eyerdam (1936a) reports that two birds were collected at Unalaska on June 10 and August 6, 1932. We saw no common mergansers in the Aleutians. The chief of Attu Island, who furnished the series of names for this bird, said that a few common mergansers nest there but that they are more numerous in winter. To sum up, the common merganser occurs sparingly from FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 105 Kodiak to Attu ; the best evidence of nesting comes from Kodiak Island; and (possibly) it nests on Attu Island. We know that it is an inland form — more so than M. serrator. Mergus serrator: Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator serrator Attu : Criich-ah'-lich Atka: A-ga-lai-ahh Agldyax (given by Jochelson as applying to two species) Russian, Commander Islands: Krakhal (Stejneger) (The Attu name is undoubtedly a corruption of the Russian.) This is the commoner merganser of the Aleutian district. It breeds on Kodiak Island (Friedmann, 1935) , and Cahalane (1943) found it generally very abundant in the Kodiak- Afognak group in 1940. He also observed it in various places in the Katmai region, where Hine (1919) also reported it to be common. Osgood (1904) found it "exceedingly abundant on all the lakes and rivers" visited at the base of Alaska Peninsula, and he mentions seeing broods of young on Iliamna, Chulitna, Kakhtul, and Nushagak Rivers. He remarks, "From start to finish probably more mergansers were seen than any other species of water bird, with the exception of the large gulls." Gabrielson also noted this duck in 1940 on the rivers tributary to Bristol Bay. There were at least 50 broods of young, in all ages, on the Kvichak River, July 23. This merganser was reported as common at Chignik, and Jaques (1930) found it paired on King Salmon Creek, near Port Moller after June 11, "possibly breeding." On May 26, 1936, we saw two females in Nushagak River at Snag Point, and a pair was seen back on the marshes among the lakes near Ugashik River, where they probably nest. In 1925, I found this merganser nesting about Izembek Bay, and, on May 25, 1925, 4 were seen on a mountain stream below Aghileen Pinnacles. (On May 4, and on several subsequent days, red-breasted mergansers were noted at Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island.) On July 5, a nest with six eggs was found on a small island near Point Grant, and another nest was found on a little island far out in Izembek Bay, in the midst of a colony of glacous-winged gulls. Red-breasted mergansers with molting wing feathers were seen late in July. Chase Littlejohn, in 1887-88, said that this duck breeds at Sanak and at Morzhovoi Bay, where they remained all winter. McGregor (1906) found three nests on Round Island, Beaver Inlet, Unalaska Island, July 4, 1901. On June 3, 1936, we saw 106 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE six of these mergansers at Unalaska — Wetmore also had observed them here on June 6 and 7, 1911, and had collected a specimen. At Unalaska Island, Cahn (1947) found a brood of 9 young in the Makushin Valley swamp, June 23, 1944, and he observed a brood of 11 downy young on Coxcomb Lake, July 4, 1945. On August 15, 1937, we flushed a female from a grass-topped islet off the shore of Amlia Island. We had found 3 pairs on Kiska Island, June 4 and 5, where Wetmore had seen 1 pair in June 1911. We found a foot of red-breasted merganser in an eagle's nest on Buldir. On June 17, we saw a flock of 7 at Semichi Islands; 6 were noted on Amchitka Island. Incidentally, Dall (1874) had reported that Amchitka was the only place in the western Aleutians where this species had been observed. In 1936, we noted a flock of seven red-breasted mergansers on Corwin Lake, Atka Island, June 22. Several were seen on Kanaga, June 29, and eight were seen in a lake on Kiska, July 26. At Adak Island, July 3, two were seen in Bay of Islands, and three or four in Kuluk Bay. June 26-27, 1911, Wetmore found them to be fairly common in the small lakes back of Bay Water- falls, Adak Island, where he found a brood of nine downy young about a week old — he suspected that there was a brood in another lake. And on September 3, 1944, Gabrielson found a brood on Amchitka, thus definitely establishing a nesting record for that part of the Aleutian chain. The Attu chief said that these ducks nest on Attu, and Atka natives reported them nesting on their island. Turner also re- ported them nesting on Atka. We can definitely state that the red-breasted merganser nests from Kodiak to Attu, and, according to Stejneger (1885), it is a very common breeding bird in the Commander Islands. Apparently, it winters in the Aleutians also (though perhaps in small numbers), because Taber (1946) observed them at Adak from December 9, 1945, to January 13, 1946. Family ACCIPITRIDAE Acdpiter gentilis: Goshawk Accipiter gentilis atricapillus The goshawk occurs on Kodiak Island, as shown by specimens recorded by Friedmann (1935). Harrold saw one on Sitkalidak Island, near Kodiak, in May 1927 (Swarth 1934). Howell (1948) found a goshawk nest July 9, 1944, located in a 35-foot spruce at Middle Bay, Kodiak Island— there was a single young, which- flew FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 107 from the nest. Osgood (1901) saw goshawks frequently near Tyonek, and two immature birds were collected. Osgood (1904) again reported a goshawk at Iliamna Pass, July 13, 1902, and several immature birds were observed repeatedly at the mouth of Chulitna River. Later, he observed the species at Nushagak. This sums up normal distribution of the goshawk in the region under discussion, though on August 15, 1946, Gabrielson recorded one at Dutch Harbor, and, on August 20, he noted another at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins. Ordinarily, the goshawk is confined to the Kodiak-Afognak area and the base of the Alaska Peninsula — the regions that contain the forested areas. Accipiter striafus: Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striafus velox Friedmann (1935) records a specimen collected by Bischoff on Kodiak Island, March 10, 1869. Osgood (1904) reports seeing a sharp-shinned hawk on the Mulchatna River, September 3, 1902 ; apparently, these are the only records for the area here con- sidered — this bird sharing the forested areas with the goshawk. But Swarth (1934) reports a specimen taken on Nunivak Island, north of the area here considered, on September 14, 1927. This bird was found among the boulders on the shore, far from any forest, which is a most unusual occurrence. Buteo lagopus: Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopus s.johannis We observed the rough-legged hawk at Kodiak and Afognak Islands. Friedmann (1935) has recorded a number of specimens in both light and dark color phases from Kodiak, and he mentions Bretherton's statement that this species nests there. Osgood (1904) reports a nesting pair on an islet in Lake Clark, and he observed one bird near the mouth of Chulitna River and another on the lower Nushagak. McKay took a specimen in 1881 on the Aleknagik River. Cahalane observed these hawks on the west side of Alaska Peninsula, on Naknek River and Three Forks, in September 1940, and, in the same year, Gabrielson noted one at Kodiak, June 14, and one at Dillingham, July 17. Gianini (1917) observed these hawks nesting in "fair num- bers," in Stepovak Bay, in 1917. In 1911, Wetmore found them to be fairly common near Frosty Peak, and he noted one at Un- O 1 Q oVo In 1925, I found a number of nests on cliffs about Izembek 108 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay and at least 4 nests on Amak Island, and I noted five or six hawks on Unimak Island. In 1936, when our party visited Amak Island very briefly, two rough-legged hawks were noted there again. They occur also in the Shumagins, because we saw one at Unga Island. Rough-legged hawks have been noted by various ornithologists in the Fox Islands group. We saw them on East Unalga, Un- Figure 25. — Rough-legged hawk. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 109 alaska, Umnak, and Ananiuliak (the last is a smaller island off the west end of Umnak). Swarth (1934) reports that these hawks were seen almost daily on Akutan from May 17 to June 13, 1927, by Harrold, nesting and in both color phases. He also found this species nesting at Unalaska. Our own observations, and the published record, show that rough-legged hawks nest along the Alaska Peninsula and on suitable offshore islands, and westward in the Aleutians as far as Ananiuliak Island — but no farther. It is significant that this breeding range coincides exactly with the distribution of rodents, for no rodents originally occupied the Aleutian Islands west of Ananiuliak. Rats and ground squirrels have been introduced on a few islands to the westward, but evidently these introductions have not yet affected the original distribution of the rough- legged hawk. Rodents constitute the chief item in the diet of these hawks, as was verified by a number of observations. Speaking of the area about Frosty Peak, Alaska Peninsula, Wetmore reported in 1911 : "The thousands of ground squirrels (Citellus) here fur- nished them an abundant food supply as the crops of those taken testified." On Amak Island, in 1925, I found a quantity of mouse fur, three Microtus, and the wing of a Savannah sparrow in a rough- legged hawk's nest. Microtus amakensis is the only rodent there. The stomach of a female hawk collected by Harrold on Akutan Island contained two field mice Microtus. Stejneger (1885), speaking of Archibuteo lagopus, said that it was occasionally seen in the Commander Islands, and he thought that it might become established there, because mice had been introduced. Aquila chrysaetos: Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos canadensis Both Turner and Dall reported the golden eagle to be abundant in the Aleutians. Austin H. Clark (1910) reported: "I observed this species once on Unalaska and several times on Atka, where it appears to be rather common." Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes), speaking of the area from the southwest end of Kodiak Island to the end of Alaska Peninsula, including adjacent islands, says, Saw quite a number of these fine birds but only obtained one, which was unavoidably lost to my collection. He was caught in a steel trap. A couple 110 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of days before, he had killed and eaten a silver fox whi^h was in a trap. It seems he returned to pick up the fragments and was himself caught. He measured nine feet from tip to tip. The exact locality was not given. In 1936, Douglas Gray and C. S. Williams saw an eagle at Unalaska, which they described as having considerable white on the tail, but with a terminal dark band. This assuredly suggests that the bird was a golden eagle. At Chignik we were told that one had been killed there, but we did not see the specimen. Cahn (1947) writes, "While probably not rare in the higher and wilder parts of Unalaska Island, this species is uncommon around Dutch Harbor. Two records in four years: June 17, 1944, over Mt. Ballyhoo, and August 7, 1944, sitting atop a mast on a ship anchored at a dock." Osgood (1904) refers to a specimen that was supposed to have been collected by McKay at Nushagak, but he was unable to find it in the National Museum collection. Friedmann (1937) found a sternum of this species in midden material from Kodiak Island — the only record for that locality. Thus, we have quite a number of records (mostly based on observations) ; however, authentic specimens are rare. It is a little difficult to conceive of the golden eagle as abundant in the Aleutians, in view of observations dating back to the time of Turner and Dall, but there seems to be ample evidence to conclude that at one time the bird was more common that it is today. It is now only an occasional straggler in the Aleutian Peninsula region. Haliaeefus albicilla: Gray Sea Eagle Friedmann (1935) records osseous remains of the gray sea eagle from village middens on Kodiak Island. Bishop (1900) re- ported the first record of this bird for North America — a young female that was found dead at Unalaska, October 5, 1899. Again, in 1905, he records a specimen that was taken at Van- couver Island, March 18, 1898. Eyerdam (1936) says, "Several of these birds were seen on Unalaska Island on May 25th and May 30th. One was killed near Dutch Harbor by a seaman from one of the coast guard cutters, who kept the claws, tail and wing feathers for souvenirs." It is unfortunate that a specimen was not saved, since it is rather remarkable to casually see "several" of a species so rare in North America. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 111 Cahn (1947) reports seeing one of these birds at Dutch Harbor on May 16, 1945, and he reports that he watched it under favorable circumstances for 10 minutes. Sutton and Wilson, at Attu, watched two dark-headed, white-tailed eagles, identified as this species, on March 15, 1945. We did not see this bird on any of our expeditions. A number of times we thought that we had sighted one, but each time it proved to be a bald eagle in one of its immature plumages. These plumages can be confusing, and we felt that records of the gray sea eagle should be based on specimens. Haliaeetus leucocephalus: Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus Attu: Tirrgh-luch Atka : Tig-a-lach A-waich'-rich (immature) Alaska Peninsula: Tikh-lukh (Wetmore) The bald eagle is commonly distributed throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula and adjacent island groups, and the Aleutian chain. It is numerous in some places. In the Aleutians, nearly every island that we visited had at least 1, often 2 or more, pairs, nesting. They are numerous about the larger islands. Williams noted 15 eagles in Bay of Islands, Adak Island, July 2, 1936, and more were found on other parts of the island. On June 29, we saw several at Kanaga Island. The caretaker of a fox- ranching establishment there had killed 14 of these eagles for the bounty, and he planned on raiding 20 more nests later. For some reason, the bald eagle is scarce in the Near Islands- including Attu, Agattu, and Semichi. We observed a single pair on Agattu in 1937, but we saw none at Attu or Semichi and the natives assured us they were very scarce. However, we found a nest on Buldir Island, and from that point eastward bald eagles were common. Not only do eagles occur along the Alaska Peninsula, they also occur on the offshore island groups. In 1940, Gabrielson observed them in several places at the base of Alaska Peninsula. At Kodiak, in 1936, one merchant erected a sign advertising the fact that eagle feet were acceptable as cash (bounty could be collected for them). Plumage and Other Color Changes Too few specimens were handled to obtain precise information on plumage changes. A. C. Bent (1937) states that he believes the bald eagle assumes the adult plumage in the fourth year. 112 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Field observations on numerous immature birds in Alaska were confusing, and we were unable to correlate some plumage patterns with age. The downy-young plumages are well known and are well de- scribed by Bent. However, the color of beak, eyes, and other soft parts is not so well known. A young bird in the dark-down stage on Ananiuliak Island had a slate-colored upper mandible, the cere was of a similar color, but it was of a little lighter shade. The tip of the lower mandible was similar to the upper in color, but posteriorly the margin of the gape was flesh color, becoming paler posteriorly and shading into a near-yellow at the corner of the mouth. The lores were dull bluish. The iris was dusky brown, and the pupil was blue. The eyelids were pale plumbeous. The feet were a yellowish-clay color, and the claws were slaty. The first-year plumage is dark ; as Bent says, "uniformly dark 'bone-brown' to 'clove brown' above and below; the flight feathers are nearly black, but there is usually a slight sprinkling of grayish white in the tail." In the first year, both the bill and cere are of a blackish-slate color. The iris is brown, and the pupil is black. At this stage, the eyelids are still plumbeous. The plumages preceding the final adult stage are hard to define. There appears to be much variation, probably over a 2- year period. Assuming a 2-year period for the post ju venal phases, the plumage varies in the degree of white mottling. The essential feature is a pattern that includes patches of dull- white mottling on scapulars and back (which, in flight, show as three distinct areas), and light-colored upper tail coverts and considerable white in under parts. In one phase of this plumage, which must be in the second year, the bill and cere are still blackish and the eye is still a rich brown. The preocular area is essentially white, the eyelid is plumbeous, and the gape is dull yellowish. The feet are yellow. A later phase, which possibly may represent the third year, still includes the dark bill, with a dull-yellowish hue appearing on the lower mandible and the margin of the cere. The eye is dull yellow also, and a yellowish tinge is encroaching upon the preocular area. The eyelid is gray, and the gape is yellow. There is much light speckling on the head, though the head is chiefly brownish. The specimen on which this description is based did not have the light mottling on upper parts falling into a pattern of three light patches, as was seen on many birds; instead, it was more scattered. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 113 In still another phase, which is quite advanced, the head is white, speckled with a blackish hue. The beak is a dull-yellowish tone — perhaps best designated as tan, somewhat streaked with a slaty tone. The lower mandible is bright yellow at the base. The cere is a mixture of gray black and yellow. The eye is yeJlow (as in the adult), the eyelid is a brighter yellow, the preocular area is pale yellow, and the gape is a rich, bright yellow. These are the advancing stages in development, the transition from dark "soft parts" to the characteristic yellow of the adult, but it was not possible to allocate all of these plumages to age groups. Nesting Trees are absent in the area except in a limited portion of the base of Alaska Peninsula, therefore nests are placed on cliffs or pinnacles, or on low ground. Many nests are inaccessible to man by ordinary means of climbing. Frequently, a nest is placed on the top of a pinnacle, which sometimes is separated from an adjacent cliff by a narrow chasm, and which is surrounded by water, at least at high tide. At times, the nest is placed on a cliff, where it may be fairly accessible to man. In one case, on Buldir Island in 1936, a nest was found on a small rock outcrop on a slope, where one could walk to it without climbing. The same place was visited the following year; the former nesting site was abandoned, and the eagles (probably the same pair) had made their nest on the flat grassy valley bottom below. There was not even a hummock at the nest location. In 1925, on Unimak Island, a nest containing eggs was placed on the top of a smooth sand dune. It is interesting to note that on June 9, 1941 (16 years later), Beals and Longworth re- ported finding an eagle's nest on a sand dune in the same locality. As a rule, eagles seek inaccessible locations on cliffs and obviously prefer pinnacles. Nests are generally built by assembling a layer of dried grasses, mosses, and other vegetable debris. Sometimes kelp is used. Kelp nests are rimmed with the dried stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum, which are the largest material available in lieu of twigs from trees. In some cases, however, the eagles use sticks from the driftwood on the beach. Eagles build various types of nests. The nest on the sand dune, already mentioned, consisted of a cavity that was 360 mm. wide and 130 mm. deep, heavily lined with dry grass, bits of moss, and a small amount of dead eelgrass from the beach. 114 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE A number of large dry stalks of Heracleum lanatum lay around the rim, though these were not used in the construction of the nest proper. Another nest was on a rock mass rising from a slope on Amak Island. A few dried plant stems were the only evidence of nest construction, and the single young sat on a bare spot, well trampled, on top of the rock, surrounded by a fringe of green grass. Another nest on the same island was somewhat similar. It was on the grassy top of a high cliff. Two well-feathered young perched in a bare trampled spot about 8 feet long, which was crescent-shaped because of a hump in the middle of the space. There were the usual dry cow parsnip stems around the edge, but there was practically no nesting material in the center. A third nest on this island was more substantial, consisting of dry grass with dry cow parsnip stems around the rim. These scanty nests contrast sharply with a nest found at Amukta Island, June 16, 1936. This nest, on top of a pinnacle, was built of kelp, grasses, and driftwood to a height of 4 feet. A nest observed at Kanaga Island, June 29, 1936, was on the grassy top of a pinnacle; it was made mostly of moss and had a wide platform rimmed with dry stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum and a few driftwood sticks. A nest on the grassy top of a columnar rock on the shore of Kiska Island was in the form of a bulky mass, consisting mostly of kelp. Still another nest, on a rocky point of Little Sitkin, was built largely of dry stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum and willow roots, with a lining of finer vegetation. The willow there is a prostrate form, whose roots often are partly exposed by wind erosion. These examples illustrate the general type and the variations of bald eagle nests. Some of the bulky nests resulted from an accumulation of material over a long period — a typical example was found at Amchitka Island, July 11, 1937. This nest — a shallow affair — was made mostly of moss on the grass-topped point of a pinnacle rising from the beach. It rested on a mass of old sod and soil to a depth of about 6 feet. This accumulation was filled with bird bones. Evidently, this accumulation had been built up by annual increment of debris left by nesting eagles for many seasons. Our various expeditions were usually too late in the season to observe eggs — there were young in nearly every case. The FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 115 number of young, in a series of 34 nests, varied from 1 to 3 per nest, though in 1941 Beals and Longworth reported a nest with 4 young. In 1 nest, there was 1 live youngster and 1 partly eaten dead youngster; in 2 other nests, there was 1 young and 1 rotten egg containing an embryo. All of these must be con- sidered as having had two fertile eggs originally. On that basis, there were 12 nests with 1 young, 17 nests with 2 young or eggs, and 5 nests with 3 young. In every nest that we observed, the nesting birds were white- headed adults. One report, from Cecil Williams in 1936, indicated a nesting pair, in immature plumage, on Uliaga Island. Food Habits I have discussed the food of this eagle in detail in "Food habits of the northern bald eagle in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska" (Condor, 1940, vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 198-202). The data presented were based on examination of 28 nests. In addition to this published material, data from 4 other nests are available, com- prising 21 more food items. This additional material agrees with the published percentages. In the Aleutian district, birds constitute the major part of the bald eagle's diet — 58.9 percent on the basis of material obtained in 1936; 86 percent for 1937. As would be expected, most of the birds taken are the so-called sea birds, chiefly shearwaters, fulmars, cormorants, glaucous-winged gulls, murres, ancient murrelets, paroquet auklets, crested auklets, and horned and tufted puffins. Fulmars and shearwaters head the list. Two ravens had been eaten. Others taken included: Petrels, kitti- wakes, pigeon guillemots, ptarmigan, least auklets, and ducks, though none of these are taken in great numbers. Ducks were not preyed on extensively, probably because of the abundance of other birds, although harlequin ducks, oldsquaws, European teals, pintails, common eiders, red-breasted mergansers, and three emperor geese were identified in food remains. Mammals are not universally available to eagles in this district and are seldom found in the diet. The ground squirrel is by far the most common mammal captured. Others, which occasionally are taken, are the house rat, the field mouse, the blue fox, and, possibly, the domestic sheep at Umnak Island. In 1938, Scheffer reported that one of the men in charge of the sheep on Umnak Island declared that he had never seen eagles bothering live sheep, though they will eat carrion. Another informant, a sheep herder at Unalaska, said that eagles will not bother healthy sheep, but they will attack dying ones and will feed on dead ones. 116 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE He had seen both ravens and eagles feeding on carcasses of winter-killed sheep. Beals and Longworth, in 1941, reported that local residents on Unimak Island believed that the bald eagle kills caribou fawns. However, this would need verification. It is known, of course, that eagles feed on dead whales and seals. It has been thought that bald eagles kill many blue foxes. But, according to the evidence we obtained, this is not the case in the Aleutian district. The remains of only one fox were found in an eagle nest, and these remains could have been carrion because we found a few dead foxes on the beaches. To further refute this theory, many blue fox families were being raised successfully in the vicinity of eagle nests. A moderate percentage of fish and invertebrates is eaten by the bald eagle. To what extent this eagle feeds on dead or spawning salmon on the Alaska Peninsula was not determined. In July 1911, at Morzhovoi Bay, Wetmore observed them feeding on dog salmon taken from shallow rapids. Edward D. Crabb (1923) apparently found fish remains to be prominent in nests examined along Alaska Peninsula; there were parts of seven Dolly Varden trout in one nest. Edward J. Reimann (1938) observed a bald eagle taking a mullet out of the water, reaching for it with one foot. Beals and Longworth found two sockeye salmon and the head of a sea gull in a nest on Unimak Island, June 9, 1941. We did not see bald eagles capture live fish, but Atka mackerel were often observed near the surface of the water, where an eagle could very easily seize one. In the Aleutian chain proper, the main food of the bald eagle consists of sea birds. There are some indications that fish of various kinds are more prominent in the diet along the Alaska Peninsula, where we did less work on this bird. At any rate, there is abundant evidence that the eagle is not a serious detri- ment to man's interests throughout the Aleutian district. Banding A number of nestling bald eagles were banded in the Aleutian Islands in 1937. Of these, six returns were obtained. All six had been banded in June; 1 on Little Kiska Island, 2 at Little Sitkin, and 3 (all in one nest) on Rat Island. The following winter, all of these were killed by natives on Attu Island. This shows a westward drift of immature eagles, at least in the western part of the Aleutian chain. These eagles are permanent residents in the Aleutian district, summer and winter. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 117 Haliaeetus pelagicus: Steller's Sea Eagle In the course of all our expeditions to the Aleutians, a Steller's sea eagle was never observed, though we scrutinized all eagles closely for such a possibility. Charles H. Gilbert's specimen from Kodiak Island (1922) is the only record of a specimen obtained from the Aleutian district; however, more recently, Friedmann (1935) has recorded several bones of this species from middens on Kodiak Island. G. Dallas Hanna (1919, 1920) has recorded a specimen taken in the Pribilofs in December 1917. These are the only records for North America based on actual specimens. Austin H. Clark (1910) reported seeing one of these eagles near Unalaska on May 26, 1906. Leonard Stejneger (1885) says of this eagle: "The habitat is especially the mainland of Kamschatka, where it is abundant, but also all the countries bordering the Okotsk Sea. On Bering Island it is only an occasional visitor, being chiefly an inland bird preferring the quiet rivers and lakes surrounded by dense forests." Circus cyaneus: Marsh Hawk Circus cyaneus hudsonius Friedmann (1935) records a specimen taken on Kodiak Island by Bretherton on April 2, 1894. Osgood (1901) reports the marsh hawk near Homer and Hope, in the Cook Inlet region, and again, in August 1902, he found them at intervals along the Kakhtul River and occasionally, all the way to Nushagak. Caha- lane (1944) observed 4 marsh hawks in Katmai National Monu- ment in September and October 1940 ; 2 of these were males. We did not see any of these hawks west of Kodiak Island during three expeditions, nor does Wetmore record any west of Kodiak Island in his field report for 1911. But Turner (1886) records a flock of 10 of these hawks at Unalaska, and he remarks that it is a rare summer visitor to Attu Island; however, this statement is surprising in view of present-day information. Those observed at Unalaska must have been a migrant group. But Cahn (1947) contributes the valuable information that lie ob- served a male in Makushin Swamp, Unalaska Island, June 7, 1943, and saw a female over the swamp at the end of Captain's Bay on July 7, 1944. Although the marsh hawk may occasionally appear to the westward, it certainly prefers the meadows and marshes of the more wooded parts of Alaska, including the base of Alaska Peninsula and the Kodiak-Afognak group. Along the north side 118 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of Alaska Peninsula all the way to the west end, and on Unimak Island, numerous marshy areas with an abundance of mice and birds may be found ; yet, this treeless region generally is avoided by the marsh hawk. Family PANDIONIDAE Pandion haliaetus: Osprey Pandion haliaetus carolinensis This bird has not been recorded from the Kodiak-Afognak Islands, but Osgood (1904) reports it to be quite common on nearly all watercourses that he has traveled, and he specifically mentions the Nogheling, Chulitna, and Kakhtul Rivers — all these are north of Lake Iliamna. Cahalane (1944) saw 2 American ospreys — 1 at Naknek River, September 4, 1940, and the other at the outlet of Brooks Lake, September 7. In 1940, Gabrielson saw 1 osprey at Wood River Lakes, July 18; he observed 1 at Brooks Lake, July 19, and he saw another near the upper end of Iliamna Lake on July 25. There are no records of sighting the American osprey farther west, but Stejneger (1885) said that it is an occasional visitor in the Commander Islands and that is is very abundant in Kam- chatka. This is another bird that does not venture out into the treeless areas to nest. Family FALCONIDAE . Falco rusticolus: Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus uralensis Attu: Kus-sum Ah'-ghu-lich The Attu chief described a bird larger than the peregrine falcon, and gave us the above name. (If it were different from the peregrine falcon, and larger, it could hardly be anything but a gyrfalcon.) The chief declared that it nests and winters on Attu Island. Austin Clark (Collins et al. 1945, p. 37) says "Lieutenant Nelson, an experienced falconer, believes he saw gyrfalcons on Kiska, though only one, in the white phase, was identified with certainty." We did not identify this bird on any of our expeditions, nor did Wetmore record it. Nelson (1887), using the name Falco rusticolus gyrfalco, said that it was very common along the Bering Sea coast, but less common in the Aleutian Islands. Swarth FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 119 (1934), using the name Falco rusticolus candicans, records a pair seen on Akutan and several on Unalaska by Cyril G. Harrold. Beals and Longworth report — March 2, False Pass: 1 falcon, very light, almost grey, on a cliff approxi- mately 1500 feet elevation. March 14, False Pass: 2 at elevation of 1800 feet, color white. March 24, False Pass: 1 with color predominantly white, flying over alders back of cannery. May 13, False Pass: 2 almost pure white falcons at 1500 feet. These are all sight records, and one cannot be sure which form of gyrfalcon was represented. But there are several speci- mens in the National Museum that are referable to uralensis: Three were taken at Nushagak, September 1, 1881, October 20, 1881, and December 5, 1882; and a juvenile specimen was ob- tained from Herendeen Bay, taken July 15, 1890, by C. H. Townsend, and marked by Friedmann as "Prob. uralensis." Fried- mann has also recorded 2 from Kodiak Island, 1 taken by Fisher, September 18, 1882, and the other (no longer extant) by Panshin in 1871. On September 21, 1942, Beal obtained a specimen at Cold Bay, on Alaska Peninsula. Stejneger (1885) listed Falco rusticolus and Falco islandus for the Commander Islands. The former, he says, is not uncommon in winter — feeding chiefly on "the numerous field mice which now infest that island," — and possibly nests there. He states that F. islandus breeds there in limited numbers. Hartert (1920) records 4 white and 4 dark immature birds and 1 white and 3 dark adults from the Commander Islands, all taken in winter ; he lists them all under Falco rusticolus candicans. Falco rusticolus obsoletus In the National Museum there is a specimen taken by McKay at Ugashik in 1881 ; it was identified by Friedmann as obsoletus. To what extent this bird occurs in the Aleutian district is un- known, nor do we know how many of this form were represented in the sight records listed under uralensis. Bond (1949) has thrown some doubt on the classification of western American gyrfalcons, but I have not had an opportunity to evaluate the situation. Falco peregrinus: Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum We did not obtain specimens of anatum in the Aleutian district, though Friedmann (1935) records a specimen from Kodiak Is- 120 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE land, which he suggests may possibly have been a migrant or vagrant. Likewise, the duck hawks reported by Captain Ammann and Lieutenant Nelson on Kiska (Clark 1945, p. 36) would have to be migrants or vagrants if we are to retain the subspecific status of these forms. There is, of course, the possibility that these birds were wanderers from Siberia (F. p. calidus). Falco peregrinus pealei Attu: Ah'-ghu-lich Atka: Ah'-ghu-lich Commander Islands: Agulekh (Stejneger) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschornij Jastrip, black hawk (Stejneger) The Aleuts of the Commander Islands speak the language of the Aleutian Islands, and, evidently, the name for this falcon is the same in all dialects. It is pretty well established that the nesting birds of the Aleutian chain are pealei, and that this form also nests in the Commander Islands. Probably the same form occupies the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent island groups. However, there is a speci- men of F. p. anatum recorded by Friedmann from Kodiak Island, and we did not collect specimens of F. p. pealei east of the Aleutian chain. We found this falcon to be common throughout the Aleutians. It nests on nearly all the islands, usually on high inaccessible ledges. It is a resident breeding bird and also winters in the Aleutians. As would be expected, the peregrine falcon feeds chiefly on birds. Casual observations revealed that the least auklet and the crested auklet are taken — one falcon was seen carrying a crested auklet. It has been reported as capturing ptarmigan and shorebirds, but it is believed that sea birds furnish a large portion of its food. Falco columbarius: Pigeon Hawk Falco columbarius bendirei Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens of bendirei from Kodiak Island, though, as he points out, Peters states in his check-list of the birds of the world that suckleyi is the breeding bird of Kodiak Island. The 1931 A.O.U. Check-List considers the Kodiak birds to be bendirei. Two specimens were obtained from Kodiak by Gabrielson, August 8, 1945. Osgood (1904) records specimens from the Nogheling and Chulitna Rivers, Nushagak Village, and Aleknagik Lake, and he observed others on the Kakhtul and Nushagak Rivers. He also FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 121 reported them common in the Cook Inlet region — specifically men- tioning Hope and Tyonek (1901). Cahalane (1944) observed a pigeon hawk on lower Ukak River, September 9, 1940, and saw another on Windy Creek, September 16. Hine (1919) also found these little hawks to be common in the region of Katmai Bay in the summer of 1919. The pigeon hawk is exceedingly rare farther west, but there are a few records available. Turner (1886) mentions a specimen taken at Unalaska in 1879. Bailey (1926) says "Hendee collected one at Unalaska Sept. 25, 1922, and saw another the next day." Captain G. A. Amman reported a pigeon hawk, not positively identified, on Kiska Island. Taber had an opportunity to observe a pigeon hawk rather closely at the military establishment on Adak Island on De- cember 9, 1945. It must be considered rare in the Aleutians, however. Hartert (1920) records a female Falco columbaHus insignis collected on Bering Island, June 10, 1915. Falco sparverius: Sparrow Hawk Falco sparverius sparverius The only record of the sparrow hawk is the statement by Dall (1873) that one was killed at Unalaska in the fall of 1871, but it was not preserved. There are no other records of this species in the entire area under discussion; therefore, Dall's inability to preserve the specimen is unfortunate. Family TETRAONIDAE Canachites canadensis: Spruce Grouse Osgood (1901, 1904) found spruce grouse to be plentiful in the wooded portions of the base of the Alaska Peninsula and the Cook Inlet region. Friedmann (1935) refers to a specimen from Kodiak Island, which was mentioned by Baird, Brewer, and Ridg- way. Cahalane (1944) found this bird to be abundant in the spruce forests north of Mount Katolinat, in the fall of 1940, and saw evidence of its presence north of Savanoski River. The Kodiak Island record had been referred to the Valdez spruce grouse, C. c. atratus, by Friedmann, but it is not known what the Alaskan Peninsula birds would be referable to. This bird could not be expected to occur west of the forested portions of Alaska Peninsula. 122 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Lagopus lagopus: Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus o/oscens/'s Aleut: Alladek (Wetmore) The willow ptarmigan, distributed throughout the Alaska Pen- insula, is represented by two races, L. 1. alascensis and L. I. muriei. Gabrielson and Lincoln (1949) referred the subspecies on the Alaska Peninsula proper to alascensis, as distinct from the races on nearby islands. Alaska willow ptarmigan were observed at the west end of the Alaska Peninsula in 1925. About the middle of May, the males were strutting and crowing in a lively fashion at Izembek Bay. On June 14, very few females were seen. Evidently, they were incubating, because on June 22 I found a nest of nine eggs, pipped, ready to hatch, and late in July there were broods of young on the marsh at Moff et Bay. Concerning the boldness of males at this time, I find the follow- ing in my field notes for June 3 : The female was sulking among the alder stems on the shore of a pond and I stood on a rise nearby. The male rushed between me and his mate, growling, puffing out his chest, and elevating his combs. He was a splendid bird as he strutted, following his mate as she sneaked along in the brush but keeping out in the open himself, evidently to attract attention away from the female. I was within 15 feet of him at times. On July 3, Donald Stevenson watched a pair of ptarmigan pro- testing the approach of a brown bear. The bear had been walk- ing across a gentle slope toward the mountains and evidently had disturbed a brood of young birds. Both parents were pretending to be crippled before the huge intruder. The bear made several lunges at the birds, but finally continued on its way. Lagopus lagopus muriei Aleut: Alladak (Wetmore) This ptarmigan occurs on Kodiak Island, Unga, Nagai, Little Koniuji, Simeonof, and Popof Islands of the Shumagins, and Atka, Unalaska, and Unimak of the Aleutians. This willow ptarmigan was described by Gabrielson and Lincoln in 1949, as follows: ''As compared with L. /. alascensis, this race is much redder and darker when skins in comparable plumages are compared. L. /. alascensis is buffy; the new race, muriei, more reddish and darker, near walnut brown, while alexandrae [of Baranof and adjacent islands] is dark brown to bister." As to distribution, they commented: "Somewhat to our sur- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 123 prise, all birds from Morzhovoi Bay, only a few miles across from False Pass, certainly belonged to alascensis, while those from Unimak Island just as definitely belonged to the island group (muriei)." Beals and Longworth (field report, 1941) reported numerous ptarmigans on Unimak from February 26 to April 10, in flocks of 25 to 300 birds. They noted, on March 6, at False Pass as fol- lows: "Large flocks of 300 or more birds each flew about the alders back of the cannery. We saw several flocks of 75 to 100 birds in Sourdough Flats and vicinity the same day." On March 24, they reported "ptarmigan by the hundreds" in the valley back of False Pass. On March 31, at Ikatan Valley, they saw 3 flocks of 100 birds each, and saw numerous groups of 10 to 15 birds. On April 2, at Sourdough Flats, they reported, "Flock after flock of 100 to 150 or more each all through this area. The flocks kept moving ahead of us until several thousand ptarmigans were gathered in one large brood across the valley floor. It looked and sounded like a gigantic chicken ranch." On April 10, at P'alse Pass, a flock of "several hundred" were noted; the males were "reddish brown about the head and shoulders." During field work on Unimak Island in May, 1925, I found these ptarmigan common in the lowlands and on the middle slopes of the mountains. On April 30, I saw three males that had acquired much of the brown plumage, but on May 4 the females that I observed were still mostly white, though speckled with brown. On May 5, I saw one male in almost complete summer plumage. An interesting incident occurred on May 19, 1925, at St. Catherine Cove. I was about ready to leave my cabin, when the clattering call of a male willow ptarmigan sounded close by. The call was followed by a light patter on the floor of an adjoining shed. Before going into the shed to investigate, I glanced out the window and saw a peregrine falcon. In the shed, I found a cock ptarmigan that ran out through the open door, only to return almost at once. But my presence proved too much for him, and he finally bolted out through the open door and, with lusty crow- ing, took flight and disappeared over a rise. By this time, the falcon was some distance away. Lagopus mufus: Rock Ptarmigan The rock ptarmigan occurs on the Alaska Peninsula, on the eastern Aleutian Islands as far west as Yunaska, on the middle and western Aleutians from Atka Island as far west as Kiska 124 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and, on the extreme western end of the chain, Attu Island. It is represented by eight subspecies : neUoni, yunaskensis, atkhensis, chamberlaini, sanfordi, gabrielsoni, toivnsendi, and evermanni. As reported elsewhere (Murie 1944, p. 122), the rock ptar- migan of the Aleutian Islands-Alaska Peninsula district fall into two groups: A dark, more or less blackish group (in summer plumage) , and a yellowish group (also in summer plumage) . The dark group, comprising nelsoni, yunaskensis, and evermanni, oc- cupies the Alaska Peninsula and the eastern Aleutians as far west as Yunaska, with the representative subspecies evermanni on the extreme western end of the chain, Attu Island. The yellow- ish group, comprising the other five forms, occupies the middle and western Aleutians from Atka Island as far west as Kiska. The five so-called yellowish ptarmigan races in the middle Aleutians are actually very similar in appearance and are hard to distinguish without a series for comparison purposes. The fact that so many forms can be separated within such a comparatively limited area can be explained only by the partial isolation af- forded by island habitat, though a given race is not necessarily confined to a single island, but may occupy a group of islands. Close knit as these five "yellowish" races are, it is still possible to separate them. The three eastern forms, atkhensis, chamber- laini, and sanfordi (the most difficult to distinguish one from an- other), form a group characterized by pale coloration, and, more particularly, by finer barring in the plumage. The two western forms, gabrielsoni and townsendi, have much heavier barring. As Bent has pointed out, middle-Aleutian ptarmigan occupy lowland areas, comparatively speaking, in contrast with the high- mountain habitat of rock ptarmigan farther east. This does not mean that the middle-Aleutian races avoid highlands; they oc- cur on relatively high ground on Atka and Kiska, and elsewhere. But the terrain of these islands is not particularly rugged, nor of the high-mountain type. Amchitka, for instance, is a low is- land. It is true, as Bent has said, that these rock ptarmigan live to a large extent in grassy areas, but it does not necessarily fol- low that they have responded directly to environment by taking on colors that blend with the color of dead grass. This is a possibility, but at present we do not have sufficient facts for a conclusive decision. Lagopus mutus nelsoni Nelson's rock ptarmigan is a dark race that occurs throughout the Alaska Peninsula area, including Kodiak and Afognak is- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 125 lands, the Shumagins, and other neighboring island groups, and west in the Aleutians as far as the Islands of the Four Mountains. We had suspected that birds from the Islands of the Four Mountains might have developed new characteristics due to iso- lation. Ground color of the plumage of birds taken on these is- lands in early summei differs in tone from that of evermanni or ridgivayi (of the Commander Islands) — although there is a slight olivaceous cast, the predominating shade is yellow-brown. The ground color also differs from that of specimens of nelsoni from Unalaska and farther east, tending to gray rather than to red in overall effect. Such differences, if real, are too insignificant to warrant naming a new form. They can best be referred to a slight deviation from the usual in nelsoni. There is a similar situa- tion at Kodiak and neighboring localities, where nelsoni shows an approach to dixoni (of southeastern Alaska), because the ground color of nelsoni has a slightly grayish cast. The females of each Aleutian form cannot readily be distin- guished, but there is a discernible difference between females of nelsoni (which represent the darker forms) and the females of the middle Aleutians (which represent the pale forms). On female nelsoni, barring is black, broad, and in contrast ; whereas, on the pale forms, the barring is less sharp, and the bars tend to be discontinuous with a softer effect. Spring-plumage changes in Nelson's rock ptarmigan come much later than the changes in willow ptarmigan. A 1-pound speci- men, collected on Ushagat of the Barren Islands group on May 11, 1936, was still mostly white. On May 7, 1925, I found, on Unimak Island, that the plumage was still nearly all white. On May 14, 1925, males were seen with well-speckled plumage, but it was a long time before these birds attained full summer dress. On June 6, in the Izembek Bay region on Alaska Peninsula, males still had considerable white in the plumage, but the females had changed completely into summer plumage. A female taken on Dolgoi Island, May 24, 1937, contained well-developed eggs. Nelson's rock ptarmigans are largely inhabitants of the high mountains, .though they are not confined to the steeper parts. They are often found on gentler middle slopes — in this respect, they resemble the rock ptarmigan of interior Alaska. Lagopus mutus yunaskensis The Yunaska rock ptarmigan was described by Gabrielson and Lincoln (1951) on the basis of a specimen collected by Gabriel- son on Yunaska. As might be suspected, although it is grayer 126 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE than nelsoni, it seems to be more nearly .allied to this darker group to the east. Although its range is thought to be confined to Yunaska, this is not certain. Lagopus mutus atkhensis Atka: A-gha-de-gach, or A-gha-de-gah Agdlkax (Jochelson) Although native names seem to apply to rock ptarmigan in general, it seems appropriate to apply the Atka dialect name to this form found on Atka Island. Turner's rock ptarmigan may possibly occur on Amlia Island (separated from Atka by only a narrow pass), though no specimens were collected on Amlia. Whether this form occurs eastward as far as Seguam is unknown, but it is logical to assume that it does. It may be expected that atkhensis also occurs westward to the next group of islands, and that it intergrades with the neighboring form, chamberlaini, of Adak. One is struck by the grayish color of atkhensis, even in flight, as compared with nelsoni. This color is generally more rufescent than chamberlaini, though both birds have the characteristic variegation of gray and rufescent patches. In fact, atkhensis and chamberlaini are hard to distinguish, though, when a good series of each is laid out for comparison, the difference can be seen. On April 4, 1924, Laing obtained a series of 15 birds on Atka — a few of these birds were still in full white plumage. The birds were just beginning to molt into summer dress, a change that appears to be slightly earlier in atkhensis than in nelsoni on Unimak Island. Rock ptarmigan have always been abundant on Atka, as many visiting collectors have testified. They are able to maintain their numbers in spite of the blue foxes. It was on Great Sitkin — a neighboring island — that I obtained the only direct evidence of cyclic behaviour among the Aleutian ptarmigan. John Taylor, who had a lease on Great Sitkin to raise blue foxes, said that he had placed 14 foxes on the island in 1934. At that time ptarmigan were numerous — "Thousands of them" was the way he expressed it. When Taylor returned to Great Sitkin the following year, ptarmigan were scarce. He did not think that the blue foxes on this large island could have been responsible for such a swift and marked decrease. There had been red foxes on the island before the planting of the blues. This sudden decrease in the ptarmigan population appears to have been a case of the char- acteristic "die-off" of ptarmigan. Similar fluctuations were not reported for Atka Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 127 Lagopus mutus chamberlaini Chamberlain's rock ptarmigan is known only from Adak Is- land, but it undoubtedly occurs on neighboring islands. It is somewhat grayer than atkhensis, and is darker on the top of the head and upper neck — an effect, not particularly striking, that results from a greater number of black markings. No doubt chamberlaini and atkhensis intergrade on some of the intermedi- ate islands. Laing (1925) found rock ptarmigan on Adak "even more nu- merous" than on Atka. He collected five males on Adak, April 13, 1924, that had started to molt into summer plumage. The date, like that for the molt into summer plumage by atkhensis, is un- usually early for ptarmigan. Lagopus mutus sanfordi Sanford's rock ptarmigan is abundant on Kanaga, Tanaga, and neighboring islands. Bent (1932), speaking of Tanaga, says: "The ptarmigan were tamer and more abundant here than on any of the other islands that we visited; we shot more than 40 in one afternoon." The two specimens we obtained on Kanaga Is- land are referable to sanfordi, showing that this race occupies Tanaga and Kanaga, at least. As Bent said, Sanford's rock ptarmigan is paler than chamber- laini, and is somewhat more ochraceous than either chamberlaini or atkhensis. Bent (1932) says: Although I described and named this race myself (1912), in honor of my friend Dr. Leonard C. Sanford, who cooperated with me in organizing our expedition to the Aleutian Islands, I must confess that it is only slightly differentiated from the Adak ptarmigan. We all noticed a difference when our birds were collected, and when we laid our series of about 40 specimens of sanfordi beside nearly as many of chamberlaini, it was easy to see that the Tanaga birds were appreciably paler than the Adak birds. The Tanaga birds are therefore the lightest in color of any of the Aleutian ptarmigan, and have the finest vermiculations. Lagopus mutus gabrielsoni Gabrielson's rock ptarmigan occurs on Amchitka Island, the type locality, as well as on Little Sitkin Island and Rat Island. We have no specimens from Semisopochnoi Island, where this form may occur also. In 1938, Scheffer obtained, on Amchitka, a specimen whose crop was filled with berries of Empetrum nigrum, no doubt a favorite food of all these rock ptarmigan. In summer plumage, the male gabrielsoni differs from sanfordi 128 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in that the ground color is more uniformly dark, and the bars are broader and extend farther down the flanks and back; it differs from toivnsendi in that the coarse barring is not restricted to the anterior part of the body, and the ground color is paler and less ochraceous. Lagopus mutus townsendi Differences between toivnsendi and gabrielsoni have just been given. Townsend's rock ptarmigan is found on Kiska and on Little Kiska Islands. We have no specimens to prove that it oc- cupies Chugul Island. It is possible, but unlikely, that townsendi is found on Buldir Island, far to the west ; in any event, we found no ptarmigan there on several visits. . Lagopus mutus evermanni Attu: A-ti-ka-took-ach Russian, Commander Islands: Kuroptka or Kuropaschka (Stejneger) Russian, Yana River region : Mala Kuropatka (Pleske) (The Attu and Russian names undoubtedly refer to all rock ptarmigan.) Evermann's rock ptarmigan occupies Attu Island. Apparently, ptarmigan have always been scarce on Attu, even before the in- troduction of blue foxes. According to Turner (1886), the natives reported ptarmigan on Agattu Island, but we did not obtain specimens there on our visit in 1936. Comparison of evermanni with ridgivayi (of the Commander Islands) shows that evermanni, darkest of the rock ptarmigan series, is closely related to the Commander Islands form. In ridgivayi, the ground color shades from dark buckthorn to hazel. This ground color varies with different specimens and on differ- ent parts of the body ; it is heavily overlaid with a close pattern of fine black vermiculation and is spotted with blackish feathers. In the Attu evermanni, the ground color suggests buckthorn brown, as in ridgivayi; but it is duskier and less rufescent, and the black vermiculations are more closely woven and the black feathers are more prevalent. The plumage characteristics in evermanni give the effect of a darker bird than ridgivayi. Com- paring evermanni and ridgivayi with nelsoni from the Islands of the Four Mountains in the eastern part of the Aleutian chain, we find that there is a general resemblance among the three, but that ridgivayi and evermanni show the closest affinity, while, in ground color, nelsoni tends to be more olivaceous with an abun- dance of Dresden brown. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 129 Family GRUIDAE Grus canadensis: Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis canadensis This sandhill crane nests on practically the entire length of Alaska Peninsula, so it is not surprising that Friedmann (1935) includes this species in the avifauna of Kodiak Island also, on the basis of a reported specimen as well as on bones found in middens. On May 26, 1936, a crane was heard calling on the tundra at Snag Point, Nushagak River; cranes were heard several times on the flats about Ugashik River, and, on May 27, one was observed flying high in the air. On May 29, there was a pair and a group of three, on the tide flats. Curiously enough, 1 bird in this group of 3 appeared to be much larger than the others, giving the ap- pearance of an adult with 2 immature birds. It is believed that cranes nest on the flats along Ugashik River. A local trapper said that cranes commonly nest upriver from Nelson Lagoon, and Gabrielson received reports of cranes in the Cold Bay district. In 1925, I found cranes on Unimak Island and adjacent parts of Alaska Peninsula, and, on May 1, 1925, two cranes were seen at Urilia Bay. On May 21 and 22, 1925, at Moffet Cove, on Izembek Bay, a pair, or a group of 3, were noted on several occasions, and on June 14, 1925, Donald Stevenson saw 1 bird. This bird (seen by Stevenson) was very fearless, and we thought that its mate probably was on a nest not far away. On July 18, on a marsh in another part of Moffet Cove, a pair of cranes tried to decoy us away — evidently they had their young nearby. Thus, it is clear that the crane nests in suitable areas along the Alaska Peninsula, probably also at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island. If it nests at Unimak Island, this point probably is the western limit of its breeding range. On August 24, 1937, I found the decomposed remains of a crane (evidently a migrant straggler) on the beach of Bogoslof Island. Turner (1886) states that the natives reported killing a crane on Attu in October. In Turner's opinion, this bird was a storm-driven straggler. But Austin H. Clark (1910) gives us a more significant ob- servation when he says — On the morning of June 8 while ashore on Agattu Island I encountered a pair of these birds, but could not succeed in getting anywhere near them. On being flushed, they never flew for any great distance, but always alighted far out in the open pasture-like areas, out of reach from any rocks or other suitable cover. 130 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE It is not impossible that cranes nested occasionally on flat, lake-strewn Agattu Island. Hartert (1920) records two adult specimens, a male and a fe- male, from the Commander Islands, and states that they probably visit that area from time to time. Family RALLIDAE Fulica americana: American Coot Fulica americana americana The only record of this bird was obtained by Gabrielson. On December 10, 1943, John Gardner, of False Pass, observed this bird in a small stream near his home. It remained for several days and appeared to be sick; on December 15, it was killed by a dog. The head, wings, and feet were saved for identification. Residents of the community had never seen a coot there before. Family HAEMATOPODIDAE Haematopus bachmani: Black Oys+ercatcher Attu : He-gich Hekh (Turner) Atka: Hech Hegis (Turner) Unalaska: Hekh (Turner) Hckli (Clark) Russian: Morskoi Ptookh, "Sea Cock" (Turner) (The variations in native names are unquestionably due to individual speech mannerisms, and represent the same name in all dialects.) Speaking of Hae??iatnpus osculans, Stejneger (1885) says, The Russians of Kamtschatka apply to this bird especially the name Ptuschok (pi. "Petuschki") , a chicken, a term used for Sijnorhynchns pygmaeus by the natives of Bering Island, for Leucosticte griseonucha by those living on the Prybilof Islands (according to H. W. Elliott), and to other birds in different parts of the vast empire where the Russian tongue is spoken. It would not be surprising, then, to have this name appear, var- iously applied, in western Alaska. The black oystercatcher breeds commonly from Kodiak Island westward for the length of Alaska Peninsula, especially on islands. We recorded one at Chignik, but we did not record the species on the shore of Alaska Peninsula. On May 11, 1936, one was found on Ushagat (Barren Islands), and we observed them also on Kodiak Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 131 Figure 26. — Black oystercatcher. In 1940, Gabrielson noted 6 of these birds at Whale Island, and he saw 15 or 20 in the Semidi Islands. On May 16, 1936, we obtained a specimen of the black oyster- catcher on Nagai Island, in the Shumagins. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes, 1887-88) wrote: "Found from Sanakh to Kodiak in limited numbers. Their warning cry at the approach of man if heard by the sea otter causes the latter to make off at once, for this reason they are much hated by otter hunters." Turner also mentions the reactions of sea- otter hunters. The north side of Alaska Peninsula is not suitable for this bird because it lacks a rocky-shore habitat. But the bird nests on Amak Island, near the west end of the Peninsula, which is probably the eastern limit of its nesting range in Bering Sea. In the Aleutian Islands proper, the black oystercatcher occurs on nearly every island and is a fairly constant feature of the rocky-shore fauna. On Attu Island, however, we saw none, and we were assured by the native chief that they do not occur there. This probably is true of all the Near Islands. We have no record of this bird west of Kiska. Turner points out (1886) that the distance between Kiska and the next island, Buldir, may be too much of an over-water flight for this bird. Strangely enough, in 1885, Turner had reported it as a rare visitor to Attu, occur- ring oftener on Semichi and Agattu. 132 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In this connection, it is interesting to note Stejneger's remarks on Haematopus osculans, of Siberia (1885) : "This bird comes only as a rare visitor to the [Commander] islands during the migration seasons. This is rather strange, as it inhabits the nearest coast of the mainland." Perhaps the oystercatchers are merely conservative — lacking the exploratory tendency of some other species — and have not yet had time to extend their range to the end of the Aleutian chain. However, if we believe Turner's report of 1885, rather than his report of 1886, the oystercatchers had reached Attu in 1885. Apparently, oystercatchers do not exceed a certain popula- tion density and are scattered rather thinly along rocky shores. Usually, there were only a few pairs on an island (about six), although more birds can be found on the larger islands. But sometimes, in summer, they gather in loose flocks. On Ogliuga Island, August 6, 1936, at least 25 or 30 were seen. On tiny Salt Island, off the shore of Atka, on July 8, 1936, a flock of 13 was noted. A nest was found June 28, 1936, on a small islet off Little Tanaga Island. The nest was in the grass — merely a shallow depression lined with a few bits of barnacle shells — and con- tained two eggs. Gabrielson (1941) found a nest on Tanaga Island that contained 2 young and 1 pipped egg. Family CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius dubius: Litfrle Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius curonicus The only record of the little ringed plover is the one by Schalow (1891, p. 259), for Kodiak Island, which originally was recorded as Charadrius alexandrinus Pallas. Oberholser (1919) concluded that this record should be identified under Charadrius dubius curonicus, and it was so listed in the 1931 A. 0. U. Check List. This record is considered doubtful, and has been dropped from the 5th edition of the A. 0. U. Check List. Charadrius semipalmatus: Semipalmated Plover The semipalmated plover is recorded from Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935) , and we observed two on the beach of Ushagat, Barren Islands, May 11, 1936. Howell (1948) found a nest with eggs at Kodiak Island, May 31, 1944. It occurs through- out the length of Alaska Peninsula. G. D. Hanna collected a FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 133 specimen, May 23, 1911, at Nushagak. Gianini (1917) found them to be common about Stepovak Bay on the south side of Alaska Peninsula, where they appeared to be nesting, in May and June 1916. Jaques (1930) recorded them on the north side near Port Moller. We saw three at False Piss, Unimak Island, August 23, 1936. In 1925, I observed the species at False Pass and at St. Catherine Cove, May 16 and 17. In the latter part of May 1925 they were found again in a valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, near Izembek Bay, and at Applegate Cove. At the time, it was believed that they were nesting. Wetmore found a few of these birds at Thin Point, near Cold Bay, in August 1911, and he obtained two immature specimens at the east base of Frosty Peak on August 6. Beals and Longworth, reporting on P'alse Pass, in 1941, noted one on a gravel bar of an old stream bed May 9, and remarked that "2 are seen on this gravel bar every time we pass. They were not observed after the 25th of May." In 1940, Gabrielson also noted three of these birds at Morzhovoi Bay. Donald Stevenson obtained a specimen on Uni- mak Island, May 25, 1922, and made this notation: "Arrived about May 1st. Rather common along glacial stream beds. Breeds." McGregor (1906) obtained a male and a female in English Bay, Unalaska Island, May 27, 1901, and he obtained two imma- ture birds on Unimak Island, August 14. In view of all these observations, the evidence is rather con- clusive that the semipalmated plover nests as far west as Unalaska Island. Pluvialis dom'mica: American Golden Plover Pluvia'is dom'mica fulva Attu : Svcgch Smix (Jochelson) (Probably refers to this bird; no dialect given) Osgood (1904) says of this species at the base of Alaska Penin- sula: A few small flocks were seen on the tide marshes and along the mud flats about Nushagak September 12 to 26. Several were seen at Igagik and others occasionally along the Ugaguk River, as far up as the mouth of Becharof Lake. Specimens were taken at Nushagak by McKay in June, 1881. Hine (1919) observed these birds at Kashvik Bay in 1919, and he collected a specimen on August 24. Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens and obser- vations of this bird at Kodiak, where it is no doubt a regular migrant. 134 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Farther westward, records are available all the way to Attu. On May 16, 1925, Donald Stevenson saw a bird at False Pass, which he thought was the golden plover. Eyerdam (1936) says "Frequently seen and collected at Unalaska and Unimak Island." Dall (1873) reports a specimen of "Charadrius virginicus, Borck" taken June 22, 1872, at Popof Island, in the Shumagins. Turner (1886) observed a golden plover at Sanak in July 1878, and on May 17, 1879, at Atka Island, he identified the plucked body of a golden plover. Again, in the early part of October 1880, he saw two golden plovers on the beach at Massacre Bay, on the south side of Attu Island. Gabrielson obtained specimens at Cold Bay and in the Shu- magins, in 1943 and 1944 respectively. On June 3, 1937, we observed a golden plover circling over the stormy sea between Segula and Semisopochnoi Islands. The chief of Attu village declared that he knew of the golden plover; he recognized a colored picture of it, gave us the Aleut name, and referred to it as the "gold snipe." He insisted that this plover nests commonly on Attu Island, and that it remains until October. The reported nesting on Attu requires verification, but it is safe to say that the golden plover may appear anywhere — as a migrant or nonbreeder, at least, from Kodiak Island to Attu Island, though it does not appear to have been observed in great numbers. Stejneger (1885) remarked that "The individuals of fulvus breeding in America migrate in winter along the Asiatic coasts, thus giving evidence of the way in which the species once im- migrated into Alaska." The records here given, however, are proof of a migration along the Alaskan coast. Conover (1945) has shown that both the American and Asiatic forms occur in Alaska, and that fulva predominates on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska. Thus, both forms could occur in the Aleutian district. Squatarola squatarola: Black-bellied Plover Friedmann (1935) says of the black-bellied plover, "The only Kodiak record I have found is a specimen referred to by Salvin and Godman in their description of this species in their great work on Central American birds." Osgood (1904) says "Two black-bellied plover were collected by McKay at Nushagak Aug. 8 to 14, 1881." Turner (1886) says "They occasionally occur in the spring migrations on the Aleutian Islands, the more abundantly on the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 135 western islands than those in the vicinity of Unalaska. I saw several on Sanakh Island in the spring of 1878, and also in late August of 1879." Stejneger (1885) says that they occur on the Commander Is- lands in fall migration only. We saw none of these birds on any of our expeditions. Aphriia virgata: Surfbird Turner (1886) says of the surfbird "At Sannakh Island in 1878, and at Kodiak in 1881, I saw several individuals of this species, but under circumstances which rendered it an impossi- bility to collect them." Friedmann (1934) records a specimen to the northward at Goodnews Bay on the Bering Sea coast, taken August 12, 1933. The Attu chief, who is well versed in his native avifauna, did not recognize a picture of this bird. Arenaria interpres: Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres interpres Commander Islands (native) : Kidmalgikh (Stejneger) Russian, Commander Islands: Kasnonogoj Kidik, i.e., red-legged sand snipe (Stejneger) A series of specimens was available for study : 2 from Nusha- gak, 1 from King's Cove, 2 from Unimak Island, 1 from Unalaska, 2 from Umnak Island, 1 from Ogliuga Island, and 1 from "Aleu- tians." In addition to these (which we examined), McKay ob- tained a turnstone at Nushagak, August 12, 1881. We carefully compared the above-mentioned specimens with series of A. i. morinella from eastern localities and with speci- mens of A. i. interpres. The relationship between these two forms did not seem to justify the insertion of an intermediate sub- species, such as A. i. oahuensis, as has been proposed. More- over, the present series from the Aleutian district agrees with the characters of A. i. interpres. One specimen, No. 118845 of the U. S. National Museum, taken by William Palmer, at Unalaska, May 19, 1890, is much like morinella and perhaps could pass for that race, especially because of the coloration of the head. But, when the extensive black on upper parts and the restricted brown areas and paleness on the wings is considered, it seems best to refer it to interpres. On May 22, 1936, we observed a small flock of turnstones, believed to be of this species, at Nelson Lagoon. On August 20, 2 or 3 ruddy turnstones were seen at Port Moller, where they were feeding on the beach with Aleutian sandpipers. 136 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In 1925, I took three specimens of ruddy, turnstones at St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island — others were seen, including one at False Pass. Wetmore observed them at King's Cove in August 1911; Mc- Gregor (1906) noted them on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901, and he obtained two specimens on Amaknak Island, August 17. Laing (1925) found 10 of these birds at Unalaska on August 8, 1924, and collected 3. Cahn (1947) saw one ruddy turnstone, in company with other sandpipers, at Summer Bay, Unalaska Is- land, July 18, 1944. Gabrielson found small groups of ruddy turnstones at Amchitka in September 1944. Littlejohn (1887-88) wrote "Plentiful in the fall at Sanakh where some remain during winter. They are very fat and tooth- some. Also numerous at Morzhovoi Bay." We found small flocks at Ogliuga and Skagul Islands, on July 23 and August 5, 1936, and the following year they were seen again at the same place on July 27 and on August 4. One speci- men was taken. On June 5, 1937, we saw 1 on Kiska Island ; on July 31, we saw 1 on West Unalga; and on August 2, we saw 12 on Ilak Island. Turner (1886) says "The turnstone is of more frequent occur- rence in the region about the shores of Bristol Bay, the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands ; perhaps more common on the western islands of that chain than to the eastward. I saw indi- viduals at Attu, Amchitka, Atkha, and in the vicinity of Belkov- sky village." And he adds: "They do not arrive on the Aleutian Islands until the middle of May, and none were observed any- where after the 1st. of October." Nesting throughout this region was not established. Stejneger (1885) states, concerning the Commander Islands, that they are at least migrants, and that possibly some of them breed. Arenaria melanocephala: Black Turnstone Bretherton (1896) found the black turnstone breeding on Kodiak Island, and Friedmann (1935) lists a number of other records for that island. Osgood (1904) collected one black turn- stone at Lake Clark, base of Alaska Peninsula, July 23, 1902, and observed others at Nushagak. He also mentions specimens taken in June, July, and August, at and near Nushagak and Ugashik, by McKay and Johnson. During August, Hine (1919) found these birds at Kashvik Bay in increasing numbers ; by August 25, they were one of the most FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 137 abundant shorebirds, being observed in flocks of at least 100. Specimens were taken. Evidently, this is in the migration route. July 23, 1940, Gabrielson found this turnstone to be common along Kvichak River, above Naknek. We frequently saw the black turnstone on the tide flats at Ugashik River, May 27 to 29, 1936. One day, I noted 8 pairs, and found a deserted nest containing 3 eggs. Evidently, the birds were on their nesting grounds, which were confined to the tide flats rather than to the somewhat higher mossy areas farther back. Littlejohn (notes) wrote "Saw one flock in the spring at Sanakh. Tried hard to obtain a specimen but failed. They were very wild." Turner (1886) saw one of these turnstones at Belkovsky, south side of Alaska Peninsula, in the early part of August 1881. He says that they were reported to be plentiful on Unga and Sanak Islands, where natives claimed this bird interfered with hunting of marine mammals by making its characteristic outcries. The natives had stated that the black turnstone is not found on "Unalashka and other islands west of the mainland." Family SCOLOPACIDAE Capella gallinago: Common Snipe Capella gallinago delicata Attu: Goo-lech' -arch (?) The Attu chief insisted that he recognized a picture of a Wil- son's snipe and gave us the native name, adding that the bird nests on Attu as well as on other islands. Since this is at vari- ance with all other information, one must seriously question it. There is the possibility that the chief was referring to an allied form from Siberia, which resembles the Wilson's snipe, and which may occur sometimes in the Near Islands. On May 12, 1936, a Wilson's snipe was performing high in the air over Kodiak Island, evidently on its nesting ground. Again, on May 25 and 26, several of these snipe were performing at Snag Point, Nushagak River. Osgood observed this species at various parts of the base of Alaska Peninsula, and, he records a specimen taken by McKay, April 25, 1882 (1904). Hanna also obtained a specimen at Nushagak, May 16, 1911. Cahalane (1944) observed the common snipe in several places within the Katmai National Monument in 1940, and on July 17, 1940, Gabrielson saw two snipe at Dillingham. 138 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Jaques (1930) found these birds in the Port Moller region in June, and Bent (1927) includes the Shumagin Islands in the breeding range. In 1925, I noted one common snipe at Urilia Bay, Unimak Is- land, on May 3, and another was heard several times at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay, on July 22. Undoubtedly these were nesting birds, so there is good evidence that the nesting range reaches westward at least as far as the Shumagins and Unimak Island. Numenius phaeopus: Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus hudsonicus The occurrence of curlews or whimbrels was rather sketchy and none was found breeding. Osgood (1904) reported three specimens collected by McKay at Nushagak in August 1881. Cahalane observed a flock of seven flying in an easterly direction about 5 miles above Naknek village, on Naknek River, September 2, 1940. On July 23, 1925, 1 observed a flock of six curlews flying over the marsh at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. On June 5, 1937, 2 curlews were seen at Kiska Island in company with 16 Pacific godwits and a ruddy turnstone. Again, on July 30, a curlew was seen on Kavalga Island. These were thought to be phaeopus, but specimens were not taken, and it is possible that some, or all, were tahitiensis. Stejneger (1885) reports the eastern whimbrel as a migrant on Bering Island. Numenius tahitiensis: Bristle-thighed Curlew On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson recorded in his field notes, for the Kvichak River, above Naknek, "Flock of 20 flew over. Dufresne has seen as many as 200 in the past 3 days around Naknek." This is the only record we have, but, in 1924, we had observed migrating flocks of immature birds at Hooper Bay, and it is logical that bristle-thighed curlews should pass over the basal part of Alaska Peninsula in migration. Actit'ts macularia: Spotted Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) lists the spotted sandpiper in the Kodiak avifauna on the basis of four specimens collected by Wosnes- sensky during 1842-43. Speaking of the base of Alaska Penin- sula, Osgood (1904) says — When we arrived at Lakes Iliamna and Clark, in the latter part of July, the majority of the spotted sandpipers, which doubtless breed in the region, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 139 had migrated, and only scattering stragglers remained. One small flock of 8 or 10 hornotines was seen nervously flitting from point to point along the gravelly beaches of Lake Clark July 25. Some days later a few belated individuals were found along the lower part of the Chulitna River. Prac- ticaHy all were gone before August 10. We found none of these birds farther west. Tringa glareola: Wood Sandpiper There is a single record of this bird for Sanak Island — a speci- men taken by Chase Littlejohn on May 27, 1894 (Littlejohn, 1904). The bird was found among some Aleutian sandpipers, and another, thought to be of this same species, was seen. Stejneger (1885) reported it rather common and breeding in the Commander Islands. Heteroscelus incanum: Wandering Tattler Russian, Commander Islands: Tschornij Kulik (Stejneger) A wandering tattler was seen on Kodiak Island, May 12, 1936, and 6 or 7 were seen on the beach at Karluk, Kodiak Island, September 1. Hine (1919) collected two specimens at Katmai Bay in 1919. Gabrielson noted a wandering tattler near Iliamna Lake on July 24 and 26, 1940, and he noted the species at Cold Bay, King Cove (with specimens), and Kodiak, as well as at Dutch Harbor and Amchitka. We obtained a specimen on Nagai Island, Shumagin group, May 16, 1936, and we saw one at False Pass, August 23. Scheffer saw one on Sanak Island, August 28, 1937. Nelson (1887) had seen one on Sanak Island, May 15, 1877. The wandering tattler has frequently been reported in the east- ern Aleutians. Bishop (1900) obtained 2 at Unalaska, October 5, 1899; McGregor (1906) recorded 2 specimens from English Bay, Unalaska Island, June 2, 1901; Laing (1925) saw 4 at Unalaska, where Turner also recorded 1; and Swarth (1934) reports 6 at Akutan, which includes 3 specimens taken. On July 16, 1911, Wetmore obtained a breeding female at King Cove, Alaska Peninsula, and said he judged that she had young in the vicinity. He found the birds to be common there in August. In 1925, I observed wandering tattlers at False Pass and Izembek Bay. On May 21, there was a pair on the beach, calling and perching on various boulders. On July 19 and 23, there was a pair and a single bird on a small gravelly stream flowing out of the marsh at Moffet Cove. August 8 and 9, there were several on the gravelly stream at False Pass, and, the next day, five 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE were collected on the rocky beach at Ikatan Peninsula. These last-mentioned were extremely fat. Local residents said that these birds occur on streams in the vicinity of Becharof Lake. Undoubtedly, the wandering tattler nests along the gravel- bordered streams in this region. It was on such a habitat that Adolph Murie and I found a nest in Mount McKinley National Park in 1923, and, considering the available evidence, it is more than likely that the wandering tattler nests along the Alaska Peninsula, on Kodiak Island, and probably on other suitable adjacent islands. It is possible that it nests on many of the Aleutian Islands farther west also. Turner (1886) said: "Among the Aleutian Islands it was observed once on Unalaska, several on Atkha. and twice on Attu." Clark (1910) reported it at Unalaska, Agattu, and Attu Islands, but it was not common. Scheffer saw one at Atka, June 1, 1937. We also noted one on Kiska Island, June 5, 1937, and obtained a specimen on Herbert Island, August 22. Stejneger (1885) reported this bird to be common in the Com- mander Islands, and he suspected that it nested there. While visiting those islands, he also obtained a specimen of Heteroscelus brevipes. It is possible that some of our sight records in the Aleutians represent the latter form. It can be expected in the Aleutians, for it has been found on the Pribilofs. Totanus melanoleucus: Greater Yellowlegs Osgood (1904) described a pair that evidently was nesting at a small pond on the portage trail between Lake Clark and Lake Iliamna. He found the species again at Swan Lake and Mulchatna River, and he mentions two specimens taken by McKay at Nushagak, August 14 to 28, 1881. Hine reported that it com- monly nested along the shore of Katmai Bay (1919). We ob- served two of these birds at Anchorage in 1936, and we were informed by local people that the species nests there. Bretherton said that it occurs on Kodiak Island and that it probably breeds there. Howell reports seeing two birds at Kodiak on May 9, 1944. In 1940, Gabrielson found this bird to be common on Alaska Peninsula; he obtained a specimen, and saw others, at Cold Bay in September 1942. We observed three greater yellowlegs on the beach at Port Moller, August 20, 1936. On July 7, 1925, I observed one of these birds circling about on Amak Island, and from July 18 to 24 they were common on the marsh at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. Evidently, this bird nests at the base of Alaska Peninsula, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 141 and it is possible that it nests as far west as the end; however, this is not certain. Totanus flavipes: Lesser Yellowlegs We did not encounter this species on our expeditions to the Aleutian Islands, and records are few. Friedmann (1935) men- tions a specimen (not available) collected by Bischoff on Kodiak Island ; its occurrence at Karluk River was reported by Bean in 1889. Cahalane reported (1943) that he saw "considerable numbers of these birds September [1940] on mud flats exposed by falling tide on the Naknek River below the rapids." Calidris canutus: Knot This species is mentioned here on the strength of Turner's re- mark (1886) : "I have not observed this bird west of Ugasik, on the eastern end of Aliaska, where it was quite plentiful in the latter part of June 1878." Presumably, it migrates through the Aleutian district, but we do not know the subspecies that are involved. Erolla ptilocnemis: Rock Sandpiper Erolia ptilocnemis ptilocnemis Using material that is available in the U. S. National Museum, ptilocnemis, couesi, quarta, and maritima were carefully com- pared. The last-named species appeared to be more stable in characters than the forms from Bering Sea. In some instances there was a close similarity, shown, for instance, between cer- tain specimens of couesi from the Aleutians and specimens of maritima; winter plumages are quite similar. There seemed good reason to include them all as forms of one species — maritima. However, Conover (1944) studied a much greater series — more than 500 specimens — and concluded that two basic species exist. His conclusion is followed here. E. p. ptilocnemis is larger than the other Bering Sea forms, and it is paler, both in summer and winter plumages. Compared with couesi, there is more tan color in the plumage of the back (less of the rusty brown and less of the black admixture). Even the primaries and tail are of a lighter color. In immature plumage, the feathers of the back are dark and narrowly edged with rusty brown in a smooth regular pattern, thus being distinguished from the broadly edged feathers of the adult at that time of year. In this immature plumage, the differ- 142 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ence in color of upper parts between ptilocnemis and couesi is not striking. The under parts of ptilocnemis are much paler with a pale buffy and gray area across the breast, the throat is nearly white and finely spotted, and the streaks on the breast and up- per flanks are narrow and pale. In contrast, the under parts of couesi in the same plumage are heavily and boldly streaked and spotted, thus giving the bird a darker appearance. In the winter plumage also, ptilocnemis is markedly paler than couesi. In all races, the measurements of wing and exposed culmen average greater in the female than in the male. Measurements, in millimeters, of 13 males and 19 females of ptilocnemis are as follows : Males: wing, 118 to 132 (125.6) ; exposed culmen, 27 to 32 (29.3) Females: wing, 125 to 136 (129.5) ; exposed culmen, 29.5 to 37.5 (33.4) The Pribilof sandpiper nests on St. Matthew and the Pribilof Islands, but, as would be expected, it occurs on Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands in migration. Probably, it winters in this area to some extent. At any rate, among the specimens ex- amined there are at least four from the Bristol Bay region that are referable to ptilocnemis. One of these, a female, was taken by C. L. McKay, at Point Etolin, April 8, 1883. Three others were collected by J. W. Johnson, at Nushagak, April 1 and April 18, 1885. McGregor (1906) records that this species was collected on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901, and on Tigalda Island, Au- gust 5, 1901. Erolia ptilocnemis couesi Attu: Too-loo-goo-yuch Atka : Chu-lich'-tah Alaska Peninsula: Tsoo-gooch (Wetmore) Russian, Commander Islands: Lajdinij kulik (Stejneger) In measurements, couesi is quite comparable to maritima and quarta, but all three are definitely smaller than ptilocnemis. The Aleutian sandpiper is decidedly darker than the Pribilof sand- piper — the markings on the under parts are bolder and heavier; the upper parts contain more black and a greater proportion of rusty brown. In this respect, couesi approaches quarta. Measurements, in millimeters, of 29 males and 24 females of couesi are as follows : Males: wing, 110 to 123 (117.1); exposed culmen, 25 to 34 (27) FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 143 Females: wing, 113.5 to 127 (120.5) ; exposed oilmen, 27 to 33 (30.7) The Aleutian sandpiper nests throughout the Aleutian Islands, where it is the common shorebird ; it also nests along the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent islands — at least as far east as Port Moller (Jaques 1930), and undoubtedly all the way to the base of the Peninsula. Hine (1919) observed it at Katmai Bay in 1919. At least two specimens in immature plumage were taken by Johnson, at Nushagak, July 11 and 18, 1884, and another was taken April 18, 1885 — all these specimens appear to be couesi. There may be some question in regard to the breeding status of this bird on Kodiak Island ; however, it winters there. Figube 27. — Aleutian rock sandpiper. The winter range includes all of the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian district. The Nesting Period Extensive observations on the nesting of the Aleutian sand- piper were possible in 1925, when I spent a season on Unimak Island and the adjacent part of Alaska Peninsula. On April 29, flocks of Aleutian sandpipers (as many as 20 birds) were feed- ing along the lagoon at Urilia Bay. The first mated pairs were noted on May 3; these mated birds had left the shorelines and were nesting on the mossy tundra. By May 7, they had become 144 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE more plentiful, and mating was in full swing. At this time, flocks were still common on the beaches — several flocks were noted at St. Catherine Cove on May 17. A flock of 150 to 200 birds, feeding on the tide flat, occasionally would rise, maneuver, wheel, and turn in the air (in characteristic sandpiper fashion), then settle back on the beach. Thereupon, a great babel of chattering would arise, as they all dabbled busily in the wet sand and mud. On May 18, a single bird was collected on the beach. It proved to be a female with an egg almost ready for the shell. The next day, a flock of 400 was seen. The significance of seeing these large flocks at the same time that others were nesting is hard to determine. They must have been nonbreeders or late nesters. On May 23, these sandpipers were common on the higher tundra back of Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay trilling and calling, evidently nesting or still making preparations. Some had ob- viously selected the nesting place or had eggs. By May 28, egg laying was definitely under way. A nest containing four eggs, found June 5, was a cavity in the ground lined with a few tiny leaves — diameter was 100 mm.; depth was 53 mm. These nesting habits were verified on later expeditions (in 1936 and 1937) throughout the Aleutian chain. Some sandpipers nested close to tidewater, others nested back in the hills — some- times a considerable distance from a body of water. On June 1, 1937, on Atka Island, I found 2 nests, each containing 4 eggs. They were shallow depressions in a mass of low vegetation, lined with bits of lichens, straws, and dwarf-willow leaves. Another nest, with four eggs, was found June 4, high up on Kiska Island. It was a depression in the moss beside a rock ; the cavity was 3 by 4 inches wide, and IV2 inches deep. On June 22, 1936, on Atka Island, I found a dead, newly hatched young. On June 22, 1937, Scheffer found a brood of 4 recently hatched young on Little Kiska Island. Another brood of 4, several days old, was found on Little Sitkin Island on June 27 ; and, on June 29, a brood of 3 was found on Rat Island. I heard the mating song of the Aleutian sandpiper at Izembek Bay in 1925. Quoting from my field report, the song suggested — the droning trill of toads, varied by a repetition of "per-deerrrr, per-deerrrr" . . . very much like the red-backed sandpiper's call, but shorter. Later on, when frightened from their nests, they had a variety of alarm calls. As they flew away, they would call "Ka-deer, ka-deer, ka-deer," similar to the notes of mating time, but shorter and sharper, and they also uttered a very rapid "uh-uh-uh-uh-uh-uh-uh." FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 145 Wetmore, in his field report for 1911, says: "The males have a trilling note, almost a whinny that is hard to describe. Also a quick musical whistled turdle turdle, on the Carolina wren order." The first signs of flocking were noted early in July. On July 5, 1937, a group of 3 adults was observed flying along the beach on Amchitka Island, and, from July 10 to July 20, 5 or 6 were seen in groups several times. On July 24, 1925, two immature birds were collected at Izembek Bay, and several flocks were seen. On July 29, 1937, flocks of 40 or more were seen on Ogliuga Is- land ; after July 29, they generally were seen in flocks. Erolia ptilocnemis quarta Russian, Commander Islands: Lajdinij kulik (Stejneger) Ernst Hartert (1920) described quarta from the Commander Islands and said — The purple sandpiper of the Commander Islands differs from E.m.couesi from Alaska and the Aleutian Islands as follows: 'In the winter plumage the foreneck and jugulum are darker slate-colour and less mixed with white. In the full summer plumage the edges to the feathers of the upperside are much wider and of a brighter ferruginous, so that the upperside looks quite rust-red, with mostly concealed black centers to the feathers. The wings measure 121-127, in one female even 130 mm.' In the series from the Commander Islands (in the U. S. Na- tion Museum), 6 males and 5 females measure, in millimeters, as follows : Males: wing, 117-129 (121) ; exposed culmen, 25.5-28.5 (27). Females: wing, 120-126.5 (122.8); exposed culmen, 27.5-33 (29.5) These measurements easily fall within the size range of couesi. While it is true that quarta is essentially a Siberian form, there are a number of records for Alaska. A. C. Bent (1927) reported these birds, at least one of which was a breeding bird, from Attu Island. Two specimens in the U. S. National Museum, Nos. 131763 and 131764 (probably the ones mentioned by Bent), as- suredly are quarta. Another Attu specimen, No. 201468, is very similar to the less brightly colored specimens from the Com- mander Islands. There is another specimen, No. 298506, from Izembek Bay, Alaska Peninsula, that is very similar to quarta and is practically identical with a specimen from St. Lawrence Island, No. 165056. Another specimen, No. 230608, from Morzho- voi Bay, has the coloration of quarta. Moreover, Bailey (1943) records two specimens from Cape Prince of Wales, taken June 6, 1922, that were identified as quarta. 146 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Four specimens were collected by F. L. Beals on Unimak Is- land in January 1941. One of these is very dark, thus agreeing with the description of quarta in winter plumage, and another is nearly as dark as quarta. These specimens have not been identi- fied definitely. It should be pointed out that in the series from Bering Island (the type locality), there are several specimens that lack the extreme of bright ruf escence which characterizes quarta ; in fact, these specimens are very similar to average couesi. One speci- men from Bering Island, No. 89037, is as pale as some ptilocnemis. In the light of this circumstance, it is difficult to evaluate the Alaskan records. Are these stragglers of quarta, or are they ex- tremes in variation within the population of couesi 1 ! Until more Siberian material is obtained, and until a more extensive knowl- edge of quarta is at hand, it may be best to accept our records as stragglers of the Old World form. Since the above studies were made, Conover (1944) reviewed the group and referred the mainland birds north of Alaska Peninsula to tschuktschorum. Erolia acuminata: Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Specimens of this sandpiper have been obtained in various parts of Alaska, including St. Lawrence, St. Michael, and Nuni- vak Islands, the Pribilofs and the Russian-held Commander Is- lands. We saw none of these birds on our expeditions to the Aleutian Islands, but Bailey (1925) reported the capture of a specimen (a young of that year) by Hendee, on Unalaska Island, on September 27; and Bishop (1900) obtained a specimen at Unalaska, on October 5, 1899. Undoubtedly, this species occurs in the Aleutian district during migration more often than is shown by published records. Erolia melanotos: Pectoral Sandpiper The pectoral sandpiper proved to be exceedingly rare. Osgood (1904) says "One was taken by Johnson at Nushagak October 15, 1884. The species was not seen by our party." Gabrielson saw three of these birds up the Kvichak River, July 23, 1940. On July 23, 1925, I observed two birds in the grassy marsh at MofFet Cove, Izembek Bay, which were believed to be imma- ture pectoral sandpipers, but, unfortunately, specimens were not obtained. The Alaska Peninsula should be in the migration route. Bishop (1900) obtained a specimen at Unalaska October 5, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 147 1899; Turner (1886) reports taking 3 specimens on Attu Is- land; and Hartert (1920) reports taking 2 specimens from Ber- ing Island. Eventually, this bird may be found nesting on some of the fa- vorable habitats on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, such as those near Ugashik River, but at present the nearest known nesting locality, reported by Friedmann, is at Goodnews Bay (1933). Erolia bairdii: Baird's Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens from Kodiak Island ; only one of these specimens is now available for verifica- tion. This specimen was taken by Townsend, August 15, 1888. According to Nelson (1887), Dall recorded Baird's sandpiper from Kodiak and from Amak Island, north of Alaska Peninsula, but there are no specimens to support these records. More recently, August 7, 1945, Gabrielson obtained a specimen at Wide Bay, Alaska Peninsula. Furthermore, he recorded them at Togalak Island, August 5, 1941 ; at Unalaska, Adak, Amchitka, Shemya, Agattu, and Kodiak in 1943; and at Amchitka, Adak, and Kodiak in 1944. These records reveal that this bird is more numerous in +he Aleutian district than was formerly supposed. Erolia m'mufilla: Least Sandpiper Attu : Kre-a-ma-ghre — choo ( ? ) The chief of Attu village said that he recognized a colored pic- ture of the least sandpiper, and he gave us the native name for it. But because the lack of striking markings makes identifica- tion difficult, and because we have no records for the western Aleutians, the chief's statement needs verification. During our brief stops at Kodiak Island we did not see this bird, but Friedmann (1935) records 6 adults and 9 downy young from Kodiak in the Thayer collection. We observed least sand- pipers at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, May 6, 1936, and we observed it again on Ushagat Island, Barren Islands, May 10, where two specimens were taken. Several of these birds were noted at Chignik on May 14, and, on May 24, 1937, a pair was seen on Dolgoi Island. Hine (1919) observed a few least sandpipers, and took a speci- men, near the mouth of Katmai River, July 23, 1919. Dall (1873) reported it to be rather abundant along the beaches of Popof Island, in the Shumagins, June 20, 1872, and he obtained specimens at that time. 148 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 28. — Least sandpiper. On May 25, 1936, six, or more, least sandpipers were found in the marshy vegetation at Snag Point, Nushagak River, where they were evidently nesting; the following day, a male, with in- cubation patches, was collected. The flight song was heard here also. Jaques (1930) reported that after May 25 this bird was abun- dant about Port Moller in the vicinity of tundra pools. In 1911, Wetmore observed the species in August at King Cove near Thin Point. Late in July, he saw them at Morzhovoi Bay under circumstances that suggested they had just finished nesting. He also mentions seeing them on August 25 between King Cove and Little Koniuji Island, and on August 26 he saw them off Chignik Bay. Gabrielson, on June 21, 1940, found 6 or 8 in a high meadow at Frosty Peak, and he took specimens there and at Unalaska, Alaska Peninsula, and the Shumagins. Gianini (1917) reported them to be common and breeding at Stepovak Bay, where he found a nest with four eggs. In May 1925, I observed these sandpipers about Urilia Bay and St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island, where they were common by May 19. At Hazen Point, Izembek Bay, a pair was seen on May 21, and, on May 29, birds were observed going through their mat- ing performance in the valley below Aghileen Pinnacles. Evi- dently these birds were nesting in the marshy valley bottom. Least sandpipers were found nesting commonly at Hazen Point, where a nest was found on June 22. The nest consisted of a slight cavity in the matted vegetation, with a few small round leaves in the bottom, and it contained four well-incubated eggs. On June FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 149 20, a small flock, probably nonbreeders, was noted at Hazen Point. During July, this sandpiper was common near Frosty Peak and the islands near Point Grant, and, on July 24, a number of flocks, probably immature birds, were feeding on the tide flats. Chase Littlejohn (notes) wrote that he "Found [it] breed- ing from Kodiak to Sanakh, but not in great numbers, a few remain during winter." McGregor (1906) obtained a specimen on Amaknak Island, May 17, 1901, and obtained another on Tigalda, August 5. Eyer- dam (1936) obtained a specimen at Unalaska on May 17, 1932, and Gabrielson collected one there on July 4, 1946. Swarth (1934) records two specimens taken on Akutan Island on May 19 and 31, by Cyril G. Harrold, who had remarked that "Several pairs were observed on the flats on Akutan Island. The male has a strange flight song consisting of a repetition of several low notes uttered while the bird is alternately gliding and hovering." On May 30, 1937, a pair of least sandpipers was seen by our party at Nikolski Village, Umnak Island. We have no records beyond Umnak, but the data indicate that the least sandpiper nests as far west as Akutan — very probably as far as Umnak. Figure 29. — Least sandpipers. 150 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Erolia alpina: Dunlin Erolia alpina pacifica The red-backed dunlin, or sandpiper, occurs in some localities on the Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) observed several flocks flying up and down the Egegik River on September 29. He men- tions several specimens taken by McKay at Ugashik in May and July 1881. G. D. Hanna obtained three specimens at Nushagak on May 31, 1911, and Hine obtained a specimen near the mouth of Katmai River, August 23, 1919. The specimens taken by McKay suggest nesting. Certainly, in 1936 we found good evidence of nesting at Ugashik River; these sandpipers were common on the tide flats on May 27 and 29. They were paired and evidently breeding. One was obviously flushed from a nest, though the nest was not found. On April 29, 1925, I saw a red-backed dunlin feeding on the shore of a lagoon at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island, in company with some Aleutian sandpipers. This may have been a migrant be- cause none were found nesting on the marshes about Izembek Bay. The dunlin's westernmost nesting locality on Alaska Penin- sula is, so far as we know, the tidal marshes about Ugashik River. Taber (1946) noted a few red-backed dunlins wintering on Adak Island. Stejneger (1885) reported this bird as a migrant in the Com- mander Islands. Limnodromus griseus: Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus caurinus A series of specimens from various parts of the Alaska Penin- sula is available, and comparison of these birds with those in other series from differing localities brings up the question of the subspecific status among the dowitchers. Specimens from Point Barrow, St. Michael, Hooper Bay, Fort Yukon, Nushagak, Ugashik, and the west end of Alaska Peninsula were examined and compared with numerous specimens from eastern localities. At the time that these comparisons were made, it appeared that the Alaska Peninsula birds should properly be included with scolopaceus. Since then, Pitelka (1950) has studied this genus intensively with nearly 3,000 specimens. On the basis of this study, he concluded that scolopaceus and griseus are distinct species, and that griseus includes three forms — griseus, hender- soni, and a new subspecies, caurinus. Previously, Aldrich (1948) had concluded that intergradation between populations could be FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 151 demonstrated among North American dowitchers and, therefore, only one species was involved. The designation of L. g. caurinus as the breeding form for southern Alaska would tend to solve some of the classification problems of Alaska Peninsula specimens. However, it still seems difficult to visualize specific status for scolopaceus, as proposed by Pitelka. As one example, a female from Nushagak, with the spot- ting of the underparts characteristic of the griseus group, was mated with a male, that was heavily barred on the underparts, typical of scolopaceus. Should we consider this to be a case of hy- bridization between two ordinarily isolated species, or should it be considered a case of intergradation between two races of the same species? A parallel situation exists in the case of the fox spar- rows at the base of Alaska Peninsula. A specimen from Ugashik River, Alaska Peninsula, was com- pared with one from La Saline, Athabaska River, which, pre- sumably, is the range of the proposed race hendersoni. Both are males — the Canadian specimen was taken May 12, 1920, and the Alaskan specimen was taken May 27, 1936, from a mated pair. These two specimens are almost identical. The longer bill is on the Canadian bird, 60.5 mm., while the bill of the Alaskan bird is 54.5 mm. The wing of the Canadian bird is smaller than that of the Alaskan bird (144 mm. and 147 mm.). Both birds are deep buff, with very little spotting, the round spots occurring on the sides of the breast and on the flanks. The Alaskan bird has a little more white on the belly than the Canadian bird, though the latter has a pale, noticeably whitish edging on the feathers of the under parts. On the upper parts, the Canadian bird is somewhat darker buff than the Alaskan one. If a mixed series of these birds were laid, it would be most difficult to separate them. Another specimen from Nushagak River is mostly white un- derneath and rather heavily spotted. This is a female ; the wing measures 145.5 mm., and the bill measures 62 mm. Neither of these two Alaskan specimens has barring on the side of the breast. Without knowledge of the locality, one would place these two, both breeding birds, with the Canadian group ; however, other birds from Nushagak show plumage associated with typical scolopaceus. Indeed, most significant of all, the female from Nushagak, lacking the bars, was mated with a male that was heavily barred. Other birds from the Bering Sea coast vary greatly in degree of spotting, in amount of barring, in amount of white underneath, and in shade of solid buff color. Length of bill also varies greatly — even within each sex group. 152 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In view of so much variation, obvious in any series from a given locality, and because of the extreme overlapping shown here, it would seem that subspecific variation best expresses the nature of the forms. Friedmann (1935) reports one record for Kodiak Island, "two specimens collected by Wosnessensky in 1842-1843, now in the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences at Leningrad." As mentioned above, we found several breeding birds on a low marshy area near Snag Point, Nushagak River, in 1936, and a female, collected there on May 25, contained two eggs almost ready for deposition of the shell. Several pairs were seen on the tide marshes at Ugashik River, May 27 and 29. Jaques (1930) observed several of these birds, and collected one at Port Moller, June 12, 1928. At Izembek Bay, near the west end of Alaska Peninsula, Donald Stevenson collected an immature female, July 2, 1925, and I obtained another immature female there, July 24, 1925. These birds possibly could have been migrants, but we believe they were on their nesting grounds. The locality is excellent habitat for this bird. Cecil Williams, a member of our party in 1936, reported seeing a long-billed dowitcher on Bogoslof Island, June 5, at the little "sulphur lake." On such a barren island, this sighting is a most surprising occurrence. Ereunetes pusillus: Semipalmated Sandpiper Eyerdam (1936) reports that this bird was collected at Una- laska and Unimak — the only report of this species for the Aleu- tion district. I have not had an opportunity to see these speci- mens. Ereunetes maun: Western Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) mentions that specimens were collected on Kodiak by Bischoff, August 10 to 15, 1868. These are the only positive records based on specimens. This bird should occur there in migration more commonly than these meager records show. On May 10, 1936, C. S. Williams obtained a specimen on Ushagat, one of the Barren Islands, which are not far from Kodiak. Osgood (1904) mentions two specimens collected by McKay at Nushagak, and Hine (1919) observed them commonly in the Katmai-Kashvik Bay area, where he collected specimens. Wetmore found these birds to be common near Thin Point, on the Alaska Peninsula, August 3 to 13, 1911, and back of King FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 153 Cove, July 12 to 20, 1911. Eyerdam (1936) reported that he collected specimens at Unalaska and Unimak, and Gabrielson obtained a specimen at Cold Bay, July 20, 1942. Turner (1886) stated that "This sandpiper is abundant in all the Aleutians. At Atkah and Amchitka it is extremely abundant." Turner's observations must have been made during certain mi- gration periods. Certainly, his statement does not fit present- day conditions, because, except for Eyerdam's records, no one else appears to have seen these birds in the Aleutians. Limosa fedoa: Marbled Godwit Osgood (1904) says of this species that "Two immature speci- mens of the marbled godwit were taken by McKay at Ugashik July 16-18, 1881." This is 1 of the 3 unusual records of this species for Alaska. Limosa lapponica: Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica baueri Attu: Mi-u-keegh Atka: Chu-ee-gech Dall obtained a specimen on an islet in Akutan Pass, June 2, 1872, and he noted it at Unalaska, June 9. He stated that it breeds there. Nelson (1887) said "On May 26, 1877, while I was at Unalaska, a native brought in half a dozen of these birds, and on June 3 I obtained three others from the sandy beach of a small inner bay." He said that they appeared to be migrating. Cahn observed one of these birds near Unalaska Island, on the beach of Hog Island, May 21, 1946. Turner (1886) said that— This godwit is found on the Aleutian Islands in the latter part of May as it is on its way to the northward. On Atkah Island I obtained three specimens. They were on the sandy beach of the west side of Nazan Bay. They re- main but a few days, and are probably stragglers from the m^'n body of their kind. At Amchitka I saw four of this species on May 24, 1881. They were in Constantine Harbor of this Island. I do not think they breed on any of the Aleutian Islands. Joseph Grinnell (1910) has also recorded two specimens taken at Unalaska by C. L. Hall on May 29 and June 4, 1894. Donald Stevenson obtained a male bird on Unimak Island, June 3, 1922, and noted that "A few observed, this one only taken. Was very thin and weak. Sex organs swollen." 154 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes for 1887-88) noted that- Many of these seen in the spring going north at Morzhovoi Bay but they do not stop, they take almost the same route as the black brant but do not bother about flying around the sand bar. As they are not seen in the fall they must take some other route. A. C. Bent (1927) said— On its spring migration the Pacific godwit passes through the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands on its way to its breeding grounds in northwestern Alaska. I saw two birds on Atka Island on June 13, 1911, probably belated migrants; it has been said to breed near Unalaska, but this seems hardly likely. On our own expeditions, we met with this bird only once. On June 5, 1937, we found a flock of 16 Pacific godwits, 2 Hudsonian curlews, and a European turnstone at the south end of Kiska Island. Two specimens of the godwit were taken. We have no records for the Alaska Peninsula, and we have no proof of nesting in the Aleutians. According to Stejneger (1885), this bird is a regular migrant in the Commander Islands. Limosa haemastica: Hudsonian Godwit Osgood (1901) wrote "Nine specimens were taken by Bischoff at Fort Kenai. At least two of these are still in the National Museum — one an adult in breeding plumage, the other in fall plumage." A. C. Bent (1927) wrote that "It has been reported from Alaska (Kenai, Nulato, Ugashik, mouth of the Yukon River, and Point Barrow)." These observations show that this godwit rarely appeared near the base of Alaska Peninsula. Crocethia alba: Sanderling Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes for 1887-88) says "Only three seen during my stay, and these were seen during very cold weather. Twice alone and once with Aleutian sandpipers." He does not mention localities here, but his observations covered the general region from Kodiak to Sanak Island. On February 7, 1941, F. L. Beals obtained a male specimen on Amchitka Island. Stejneger (1885) reports the sanderling to be a rare migrant in the Commander Islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 155 Family PHALAROPODIDAE Phalaropus fulicarius: Red Phalarope Attu: A-chi-li-rhd-nch Russian, Yana River region: Plavounetz, more often Petouschok (Pleske) We observed flocks of red phalarope in spring migration as well as later in the summer, when some of them may have been re- turning from the north. On May 22, 1937, several flocks were seen in Shelikof Strait, many in the red plumage, and the next day, they were common all the way between Sutwik Island and the Shumagins. These were chiefly in the red plumage. On Au- gust 26, as we approached East Unalga Island from Unalaska, flocks were seen, this time in whitish winter plumage. On the evening of May 21, 1936, while passing offshore from Unimak Is- land in Bering Sea, we saw bands of red phalaropes, totaling nearly 100, flying over the water. On July 15, over 100 were fly- ing near the Baby Islands in Akutan Pass, and near Rootok Is- land. Next day, more of these birds were seen near Rootok Island. On two occasions, they were seen feeding along a line of dead kelp. Cahalane (1943) says "N. J. Benson told me that in August 1940 he had seen a flock of 'at least five thousand' of the 'whale birds' in Shelikof Strait." Turner (1886) wrote that he "saw but few of these birds at Nushagak. At the mouth of Ugasik River, and the low grounds surrounding it, I saw hundreds of these birds." Jaques (1930) says that the red phalarope was "First seen near the Shumagin Islands May 15 and 16, at Moller Bay, and throughout Bering Sea on the northward voyage." And again, "Only one bird (at Port Moller) was seen on or near the shore." There is a strong probability that a few red phalaropes nest on parts of Alaska Peninsula. Turner's observations at Nushagak and Ugashik, and the bird noted by Jaques at Port Moller, suggest nesting, because these are birds of the open sea when on migration. Furthermore, on May 25, 1925, I found a female along the stream flowing northwesterward from Aghileen Pin- nacles, on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, and on May 29 another female was flushed from a pond in the upper end of the same valley. On June 22 Donald Stevenson shot a female at Hazen Point; he thought that this bird had incubation patches. Nelson (1887) says "It is an abundant summer visitant on the Near Islands, .and breeds abundantly on some of the Com- mander group." Turner, on the other hand, (1886) says "I have no record 156 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of their occurrence in the Aleutian Islands. They may occasionally occur there with other species." Stejneger (1885) merely reports a flock seen at sea, near the Commander Islands. Hartert (1920) records five specimens taken on the Commander Islands, and he remarks that the late dates, May 25 to June 16, suggest breeding. Clark (1910) reports that when he approached Unalaska "thousands of these birds were seen, mostly in flocks of from fifty to a hundred or more, but many singly or in small com- panies." The chief of Attu Village said that the red phalarope does not nest in the Aleutians, but he stated that it is plentiful there in winter. This probably is true, though the above data gives good evidence of nesting along the Alaska Peninsula. Lobipes lobatus: Northern Phalarope Attu : Chirr-teg-ech Chhnt-khukh (according to Turner) Atka: Chir-riz-ing-ah Large numbers of the northern phalarope migrate along the southern Alaskan coast. On May 8, 1937, while passing through Snow Pass in southeastern Alaska, we enjoyed the impressive spectacle of several thousands of northern phalaropes resting on the water. There was much dead kelp, which apparently afforded good feeding. On May 16 and 17, northern phalaropes were abundant on the tide flats at Eyak River, near Cordova, and local residents declared that they nest there. On May 11, 1936, we observed a small group between the Barren Islands and Afognak Island, and on May 13 we saw a flock of about 25 in Kupreanof Strait as well as smaller groups near Kodiak Island. All of these flocks were seen over open water, where they sometimes alighted and swam about. Cahalane (1944) observed two northern phalaropes in the Katmai region in September 1940, and Hine (1919) noted them on a number of occasions near the mouth of Katmai River where he obtained specimens. Littlejohn wrote : "Seen often at sea in large flocks and found nesting at Kodiak and Sanakh in April 1888." On May 25, 1936, two were seen near a pond on the tide flat at Snag Point, Nushagak River, evidently preparing to nest, and, on May 27 and 29, on the tide flats at Ugashik River, many more seemed to be preparing to nest. Some were seen in small flocks, others in twos and threes. Jaques (1930) found this bird "abundant about the Port FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 157 Moller region in all sorts of pools on the tundra after June 1 until our departure on June 22." Gianini (1917) noted the species at Stepovak Bay as "one of the most common and interesting of the smaller birds. Every pond had a pair or more ... I found no nests nor saw any young, yet these birds breed there." In 1911, Wetmore found these phalaropes evidently breeding in the Morzhovoi Bay region. In 1925, I observed many northern phalaropes, obviously breeding, in the wet valley bottom below Aghileen Pinnacles, on Hazen Point, and on the marshes at Moffet Cove. Two males that were collected June 15 had incubation patches, and, on July 19, Donald Stevenson saw a young bird. Turner (1886) says: "Hundreds of them were seen on the low grounds on the northern side of Alaska." The northern phalarope also nests on many of the Aleutian Islands. We found them on Unimak, Unalaska, Atka, Little Tanaga, Adak, Amchitka, Ogliuga, Little Sitkin, Kiska, Little Kiska, Buldir, Semichi, and Agattu. Swarth (1934) reports a pair taken on Akutan. Wetmore found them nesting on Adak, Tanaga, and Kiska, and he believed that they nested on Atka. Turner (1886) says that they are abundant on the western islands in the Aleutian chain, and he adds that many of them breed on Atka, Amchitka, Semichi, and Agattu. On Buldir Island, we were much interested to find two of these birds high on the mountain, in the area occupied by nesting geese. Stejneger reported the northern phalarope to be a common breeding bird in the Commander Islands. Family STERCORARIIDAE Stercorarius pomarinus: Pomarine Jaeger Russian, Yana and Indigirka regions: Terbei (Pleske) Chukchi: Aunuklinuadl'-ukanodlin (Palmen) According to Pleske, the Russian name "Terbei" applies to jaegers in general. He states that in northern Siberia, people of various languages use one name for all jaegers, adding "large" or "small" for the different kinds. Similarly, among some Eskimos I found that the same name was applied to parasiticus and longicaudus. 158 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The pomarine jaeger proved to be a rare bird in the Aleutian district, and there was no evidence of nesting. On the evening of May 21, 1936, several miles off Urilia Bay, Unimak Island, 3 pomarine jaegers passed the ship — 2 were together, followed by a single bird that Cecil Williams identified at close range. On May 22, another pomarine jaeger was seen offshore from Nelson Lagoon, Alaska Peninsula, and several others were seen farther east later in the day. On two occasions, we noticed a jaeger trying to rob an Arctic tern. On May 23, three or four jaegers were seen in outer Nushagak Bay. Farther west, on July 4, three jaegers were observed between Little Tanaga and Kagalaska Islands. They probably were pomarinus, because they were large and were light underneath; however, positive identification was impossible. Another was seen at West Unalga Island on August 3. Pomarine jaegers were seen again in 1937. One was seen near Resurrection Bay on May 20 ; 1 was observed near the Shumagins, May 23, and several were seen near Deer Island, May 24; 1 was seen near Unimak Island, May 25; and 1 was sighted west of Kiska Island, June 6. One June 17, the captain of our ship counted 7 of these birds off Semichi Islands — I verified 4 of them. Later in the day, another was seen at sea, farther eastward. On August 19, at Cape Cheerful, near Unalaska, there were quite a number of these jaegers among the shearwaters, and on August 24 one was seen near Bogoslof, among gulls and shearwaters. Austin H. Clark (1910) saw a pomarine jaeger at Bower's Bank in Bering Sea on June 3 — this is the only one that he noted. Pomarine jaegers were always found either at sea or well offshore, they never were seen on land. Apparently, the waters about the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians afford excellent foraging for nonnesting individuals. Jaegers probably parasitize gulls and shearwaters in this area, though no doubt they are also capable of feeding directly from the water, where marine organ- isms are so abundant. In 1924, we found the pomarine jaeger nesting commonly at Hooper Bay, and no doubt the nonbreeding individuals would be attracted to the Aleutian area, which must lie in their migration path. Hartert (1920) records two specimens taken on the Commander Islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 159 Stercorarius parasiticus: Parasitic Jaeger Attu: Klu-pa-soch Atka: Ke-uch Russian, Commander Islands: Rasbojyiik (Stejneger) Chukchi: UadV Ukangodlin (Palmen) The parasitic jaeger nests on Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935; Bent 1921), throughout the Alaska Peninsula, and along the Aleutian chain. On May 23, 1936, 2 of these birds were seen in outer Nushagak Bay; on May 25, 3 were seen, and, the next day, 2 were observed over the marshy tide flats at Snag Point, Nushagak River. On May 27 and 29, a number of these birds were seen flying about over the tide flats at Ugashik River — both the light- and dark-color phases were noted. C. S. Williams collected one in the light-color phase. On August 26, there were five (all of which were in the light-colored phase) over the marsh at Sand Point, Popof Island. On June 18, 1940, Gabrielson saw a pair at the Semidi Islands, and on July 17, he saw three birds at Dillingham. On July 19, he saw 12 parasitic jaegers on Naknek River. Jaques (1930) says the parasitic jaeger was "Common along shore and over the tundra north of Port Moller, where it was breeding in June." In 1925, I found these jaegers to be numerous about Izembek Bay during the nesting season, and I suspected that they were nesting, though proof was lacking. Wetmore reported these birds "tolerably common" about Morzhovoi Bay, and Gianini (1917) found them quite common about Stepovak Bay. We saw this bird frequently throughout the Aleutian chain. They were in pairs, on characteristic tundra habitat, and they acted in a manner typical of nesting. Unfortunately, we had no time to hunt for nests. On June 12, 1936, 4 pairs of jaegers were found on Chuginadak Island; June 14, 1 was seen on Herbert; June 18, a pair was seen on Seguam; June 29, 3 were seen on Kanaga; July 23, 2 were seen on Ogliuga ; July 26, several were observed on Kiska ; July 30, 3 were sighted on Attu; July 31, at least 21 were seen high up on Buldir; August 4, 5 were seen on Kavalga and 3 were seen on Skagul Island. In 1937, they were noted again : June 4 and 5, 6 were seen on Kiska ; June 7 and 10, 4 were seen on Attu ; June 11 to 15, common on Agattu; June 17, 6 were seen on Semichi; June 18, abundant on Buldir; June 21, common on Kiska; June 22, a pair was seen on Little Kiska; June 23, 3 were seen on Chugul ; June 27, a pair was seen on Little Sitkin; June 30, at least 2 pairs were 160 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE seen on Rat Island; July 4, 3 were seen on Semisopochnoi ; July 5 and 11, about 7 were sighted on Amchitka; July 29, at least 4 were seen on Ogliuga ; July 30, three or four were observed on Kavalga; July 31, 2 were seen on West Unalga; and on August 2, 2 were seen on Uak. On the Alaska Peninsula, the black-color phase of the parasitic jaeger is particularly common, though the light phase probably predominates. In the Shumagins, all five birds seen were light colored. Among the Aleutian Islands, however, the light-color phase is a rarity. More than 100 parasitic jaegers were recorded, and, of this number, only 4 were specifically mentioned in our field notes as being light colored; nearly all the rest were mentioned as being definitely dark. Possibly in no other area is the parasitic jaeger population so uniformly dark. Stejneger (1885) says of the color phase that "On the Com- mander Islands the dark form is the most common. A few only with white lower surface were seen and one secured." Hartert (1920) obtained 4 adults in the Commander Islands with white underparts, and he obtained 3 of the dark phase. Dall (1874) noted the same tendency, believing, however, that the dark color was in the immature plumage ; this becomes obvious when he says "nor have we ever obtained any in completely adult plumage. All our specimens are of a nearly uniform dark slate color." Bent (1921) has suggested that the dark color phase may be a distinct species. That appears doubtful, however. Bent quotes Grinnell as saying that he found a light and a dark bird mated. On two occasions in the Aleutians we observed trios, one of which was white. Unless we can show that normally the two color types keep segregated in breeding, with only an occasional crossbreeding that may be construed as hybridization, it will be better to consider that they are color phases. A dark-color phase, becoming dominant or very prominent locally, is known among other animal species — for example, in the case of the marmot in parts of the Rocky Mountains, the ground squirrel in eastern Alaska, and the Arctic fox in the Aleutians. Food Habits The name of this bird suggests its food habits. It is known to rob gulls and terns of their food. The Arctic tern and European turnstone were seen pursuing parasitic jaegers, evidently rec- ognizing them as foes. On Alaska Peninsula, there was evidence FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 161 that these jaegers were seeking fragments of salmon left on the banks by brown bears. On Buldir Island, where parasitic jaegers were so numerous, a colony, of nesting glaucous-winged gulls probably furnished a food supply for the jaegers. On Agattu Island, 24 pellets were obtained; these pellets con- tained the remains of 17 forked-tailed petrels, 3 murres, and 5 unidentified birds. Of the last mentioned, 2 were possibly paroquet auklets and 1 was a small, sparrow-sized bird. Some of these items, especially the murres, were undoubtedly carrion. A nesting colony of forked-tailed petrels, near the perch where the pellets were obtained obviously was the source of the items found in the pellets — however, the method of capture was not ascertained. It is, of course, possible that the jaegers found parts of petrel carcasses left by blue foxes. Certain observations suggest that the parasitic jaeger is not solely a carrion eater and robber, but that it hunts part of the time in the manner of a hawk. On Semisopochnoi Island, Douglas Gray and I sat on a slope in the midst of a least auklet colony and watched the performance of a parasitic jaeger. For over an hour, we watched the bird repeatedly pursue these little auklets as the flocks came in from the sea. It did not stoop from a height, but it would single out a bird and follow it as swiftly as possible on the level or at various angles, in irregular flight. There are two possible interpretations. It may have been trying to capture an auklet, or it may have been trying to make it disgorge. So far as we could see, in spite of its persistence, it did not succeed in either purpose. Stejneger (1885) says, of the Commander Islands: "In the autumn they seem to feed to a great extent on the berries of Empetrum nigrum, and their excreta at that time are colored dark blue." Stercorarius longicaudus: Long-tailed Jaeger Chukchi: AnkakenuadV-ukangodlin (Palmen) The long-tailed jaeger is rare in the Aleutian district. Fried- mann (1935) records a few bones found in middens on Kodiak Island. Osgood (1904) reports one on Iliamna Lake, July 16, 1902, and he records specimens taken by McKay at Nushagak and Ugashik in July and August 1881. On July 17, Gabrielson recorded a long-tailed jaeger at Dilling- ham; and, on July 19, he noted three on Naknek River. Gianini (1917) is the only observer who has reported these jaegers to be common; his observations were made at Stepovak 162 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay, where he collected a specimen. Apparently, Wetmore did not observe them on Alaska Peninsula in 1911, and I did not positively identify this jaeger at Izembek Bay in 1925. Turner (1886) says "The Long-tailed Jaeger is rarely seen on the Eastern Aleutian Islands. I saw one on Sannakh Island in July, 1878. I saw a few at Atkah Island in 1879, and two at Attu Island in 1880 . . . This species is reported to breed at the Semichi Islands." Friedmann (1934) reports a number of bones of this jaeger found in middens on Amaknak Island. Stevenson obtained a specimen on Ilak Island, September 8, 1921. We observed it only once in the Aleutians. On June 13, 1937, I watched a bird in the normal light-colored plumage, flying about with three parasitic jaegers. Clark (1910) reports seeing one on Bower's Bank, Bering Sea. Hartert (1920) records two specimens from Commander Is- lands. Stejneger (1885) stated that they do not nest there. Family LARIDAE Larus hyperboreus: Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus Russian, Murman coast: Kluscha (Pleske) Chukchi: Yttak, tchikerga (Palmen) Though the glaucous gull normally nests north of the Aleutian district, it reaches this area in considerable numbers in winter and in migration to more southern localities. As Friedmann suggested (1935), it is practically certain that Turner was in error when he reported "countless thousands" of these gulls on cliffs at Kodiak. Friedmann records several bones found in middens on Kodiak, adding, "Macoun mentions a bird in the Hen- shaw collection, and 3 eggs taken in June, 1880, now in the Mailliard collection, [which] are the only other records I have found." While these are recorded under the name Larus h. hyperboreus, they could possibly refer to L. h. barrovianus. We do, however, have at least one undoubted specimen of L. h. hyperboreus — a male taken at Unalaska Island by Wetmore on June 9, 1911. Though this specimen was listed by Oberholser (1918) under L. h. barrovianus, examination of the speciman shows that it has the massive beak that characterizes L. h. hyperboreus, the measurements being greater than in barrovianus. Since it is FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 163 known that the eastern glaucous gull nests on St. Matthew and Walrus Islands, we would expect it to visit the Aleutian district at times, though the western glaucous gull would be most pre- valent. Oberholser (1918) also mentions Diomede Islands for this form. Larus hyperboreus barrovianus Though the status of barrovianus has been belabored repeatedly by able ornithologists, certain specimens obtained in the Aleutians induced me to examine the whole question again. More than 200 specimens were examined in the U. S. National Museum and in the American Museum of Natural History in New York. It is useless to deny the difficulties in recognizing barrovianus as a distinct form. In studying series from a given locality, one is confronted with specimens that do not fit a given description. Gulls are variable, and one must be cautious in arriving at con- clusions. On the other hand, if one is careful to give due weight to breeding territory, and to allow for migration to explain cer- tain irregularities, many of these difficulties disappear. All gulls of the species hyperboreus are pale mantled, but true hyperboreus is noticeably paler than barrovianus. Furthermore, hyperboreus is definitely larger and has a decidedly larger and more massive beak. Listed measurements do not adequately ex- press the difference. Depth of bill of the two forms overlaps, or meets, at about 23 mm., though most of them are above, or below, this figure, and a difference of even 2 mm. makes a considerable difference in appearance. A good series of specimens from Point Barrow and the east shore of Bering Sea are remarkably uniform in the characters assigned to barrovianus — the darker mantle, the smaller size, and especially the smaller bill. Available specimens from eastern North America are confusing, but it is notable that when winter specimens are eliminated, and apparent breeding birds are used, they fall more generally into the group of hyperboreus. This was especially true of Greenland, where a good series of breeding birds presented a clear picture of Larus h. hyperboreus, as here described. The confusing aspect of the distribution of these two forms is the considerable number of small-sized birds found along the Atlantic coast in winter, which apparently agree with barro- vianus, but which are far from the type locality. Possibly we should expect this. Oberholser gave the breeding range as extending along the Arctic coast as far east as "the territories of 164 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Yukon and western Mackenzie." It is entirely possible that the breeding range extends much farther east. Among specimens examined, L. h. hyperboreus was found to the westward across northern Eurasia, Greenland, and northeastern North America as far west as Baffin and Ellesmere Islands. In any case, it may be expected that many of the birds can find their way from Arctic Canada to the Atlantic coast in winter. The gulls are far- ranging birds. Steller's eider has been recorded from the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Fisher 1900). It seems logical to consider Larus h. hyperboreus a& breeding throughout the Arctic regions of Siberia and Europe, traveling as far west as Baffin and Ellesmere Islands (and probably neighbor- ing areas) and, from the west, traveling eastward to the Bering Sea coast of Siberia. In Bering Sea, the birds obviously have come eastward as far as St. Matthew and Walrus Islands. There is a specimen from St. Matthew taken by G. D. Hanna on July 9, 1916. Gabrielson obtained a breeding specimen on St. Matthew Island in the summer of 1940. He noted particularly that the breeding colony consisted of birds obviously larger than the glaucous-winged gulls. It may be remarked that the size of the average barrovianus is not far different from glaucescens, includ- ing the size of bill. Therefore, the birds noted on St. Matthew Island by Gabrielson would be the larger hyperboreus. Thus, L. h. barrovianus has a breeding range that includes the Bering Sea coast of Alaska and the Arctic coast of Alaska and Canada eastward, possibly across most of the Northwest Terri- tory. Collections of breeding specimens would aid in this determi- nation. There are indications that the two forms meet in the Pribilofs, for there is an immature bird from St. Paul Island that agrees with barrovianus, and another that seems to be inter- mediate. (No. 118716, U. S. National Museum) There are a number of records of the smaller barrovianus in the Aleutian district. The records that are not supported by specimens, or specimens that were not examined, are included here on geographic grounds. Oberholser (1918) listed specimens from the following places: Unalaska, November 1, 1903; November 12, 1904; July 4, 1901 (nestling) ; Amak Island, July 18, 1911 (nestling.) Wetmore reported seeing a "finely marked" glaucous gull in Unimak Pass on June 4, 1911. (The specimen that he collected on June 9, at Unalaska, proved to be hyperboreus.) Swarth (1934) records two immature specimens taken on Akutan, May 18 and 21, 1927. Laing (1925) obtained two im- mature specimens at Unalaska, March 26 and 28, 1924. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 165 Friedmann (1934) reports two bones from middens on Amak- nak Island, and (1937) a bone from Dutch Harbor middens, a skull and a femur from Little Kiska, and two skulls from Attu. Undoubtedly these were not subspecifically determined. In 1937, in the dirt foundation of a bald eagle's nest on Amchitka Island, I obtained two humeri that appeared large enough to be a glaucous gull. This identification was later supported by Friedmann, who thought the bones were slightly undersized (which would indicate barrovianus.) Bishop (1900) reported seeing several of this species at Una- laska October 4, 1899. Another specimen collected at False Pass by Donald Steven- son, April 28, 1925, is an immature bird typical of barrovianus. Still another, similar to the above, was taken on Unimak Island by F. L. Beals, April 5, 1941, and another one at Unalaska, March 5, 1942. Cahn (1947), under heading of Larus hyperboreus, reports seeing a few at Unalaska, and Taber ( 1946) reports a few winter- ing at Adak. It would be difficult to determine the subspecies- without specimens, but Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed im- mature glaucous gulls wintering at Attu. On March 17, when they made a count, there was a glaucous gull for every 25 glaucous-winged gulls. It is significant that they noted that the size was similar to that of glaucous-winged gulls, suggesting bar- rovianus. We did not find nesting birds of this species on either Una- laska or Amak Islands, therefore it is surprising to recall that Oberholser had listed his two specimens as "nestlings." Larus glaucescens: Glaucous-winged Gull Attu: Hlu-ka Chd-larch, immature Atka : Shlil-ka Sliikax (Jochelson) Chid-li-arch, immature Cuh'igidax, immature (Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschaika, gull in general (Stejneger) The Aleut names given the glaucous-winged gull are obviously the same in both dialects and resemble the Russian. This is the common breeding gull throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutians, and other islands, including the Kodiak-Afognak group. Osgood (1904) reported them nesting on islands in Iliamna Lake and at Becharof Lake, and he observed them at Nushagak. On July 24 and 27, 1940, Gabrielson found 166 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE glaucous-winged gulls common about the upper end of Iliamna Lake, and he found a nesting colony on some small rocky islets. In flying over the tundra between Egegik cannery and Becharof Lake, he found these gulls to be common everywhere. The species is the nesting gull on the Commander Islands; also it nests in Kamchatka, the Pribilofs, and as far north as St. Lawrence Island (Murie 1936). Nesting Glaucous-winged gulls nest in a great variety of sites — on high ledges on cliffs (as near False Pass), on high grassy slopes of islands (a favorite site) , on low rock islets, or on the sandy shores Figure 30. — Glaucous-winged gulls. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 167 amidst the rank growth of Elymus. The most important require- ments seem to be a handy source of food, and protection from mammalian intrusion. As in the case of many other birds, if blue foxes inhabit an island, the gulls nest on offshore rocks. Size of colonies varies from a few individuals to as many as 5,000 birds — this is an estimated count of birds that I observed nesting on Glen Island, at the entrance to Izembek Bay in 1925. A colony on a high green slope above the cliffs on Amak Island numbered about 2,000, and, on Amagat Island, there were at least 2,000. Throughout the Aleutian chain to the westward, however, the colonies numbered from 50 to 150, rarely more than 400. The large numbers in the colonies (mentioned above) may be due to the large food supply provided by the refuse at the cannery at False Pass, the salmon fragments left by brown bears on the Alaska Peninsula, and the fish that the gulls are able to obtain in the salmon-filled streams. Nests are usually the typical gull structure — a mass of vegeta- tion consisting of grasses, dry kelp or eel grass rolled up by the tide, with dry sponges and other debris mixed in. Frequently, however, the nest is a depression with a scanty lining of grass or other material, and in some instances the gulls had merely formed a depression in a windrow of kelp and eel grass above the usual high-tide mark. The eggs are of the well-known large gull type, but considerable variation was found. The color tone (speaking in general terms) varied from brownish to greenish. One unusual set of two eggs were a plain light-blue color without brown markings. Curiously enough, a corresponding variation in color was noted also among the downy young. The majority had a buffy color tone, but a few were blue gray with no buffy color. The downy young gull is precocious and is wonderfully adept at hiding at an early age, and therefore it is hard to find where vegetation is rank. On open sandy nesting grounds, the young are likely to run, and they take to the water fearlessly, swimming out a considerable distance. When once started in flight over open ground, these youngsters go headlong and do not stop until they think a safe distance has been attained, even though pursuit has stopped. One young bird, with its gullet bulging with food, presented an ungainly and ludicrous sight running across the beach. It stopped to spew up food several times until its throat had re- gained its normal proportions, then it took flight. This action was observed repeatedly. Was the bird consciously lightening its 168 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cargo to quicken its speed, or was it a peace offering, an early manifestation of the adult reaction to jaegers' attack? Possibly it is only a nervous reaction and may be common to the young of several species, such as cormorants and pelicans, which promptly spew up their food when disturbed. Food Habits The omnivorous habit of the glaucous-winged gull is well known ; it is a glutton in the presence of an abundant food supply. Wetmore (manuscript notes, 1911) wrote of the gulls near the cannery at False Pass that — Everything is gobbled up greedily, and some of the birds can hardly rise in the air when gorged. I have seen one of them choke down two full-sized dog salmon heads entire, and stand gasping and choking for several min- utes with an enormous lump in the throat. Gulls congregate in large numbers at the cannery docks to feed on the refuse, and are accepted as welcome scavengers. For the same purpose they follow the ships, and they gather to feed on the carcasses of stranded whales or seals or on dead fish thrown up by the tide. They found abundant food at the whaling station at Akutan. On Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, where Alaska brown bears feed on salmon, the gulls gather to pick up the leavings. The natural food taken by the glaucous-winged gulls depends on the environment. In 1925, at Izembek Bay and at St. Catherine Cove on Unimak Island, I found these gulls feeding chiefly on crabs. A small yellow-brown, hairy variety is very common in these waters, and the gulls consistently hunt for it. On the ocean beach, they stalk about at low tide and eat crabs. As the tide ebbs, many crabs are left on the beach, covered with a layer of sand so that they present only a slight lump on the smooth beach surface, however the gulls are expert in finding them. In Izembek Bay, parts of which run nearly dry at low tide, the gulls find a good crab-hunting ground. Food remains on nesting grounds of Glen Island and other points in the bay consisted almost entirely of crab remains, and many empty carapaces were strewn along the beaches, picked clean by the gulls. The smaller crabs are swallowed whole. The gulls manage to find an occasional clam, and there also is an occasional dead murre or codfish on the beach — additional items in the gull's diet. On Amak and Bogoslof Islands, the glaucous-winged gull specializes in murres' eggs and young. Nesting gull colonies were situated at a convenient distance from murre cliffs, and the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 169 gulls flew along the ledges boldly, hunting eggs in a business- like manner. The murres cackled and presented a pointed beak, but the gull usually managed to snatch the egg of an absent neighbor. Common-eider and gull colonies are often closely associated, because of similar habitat preferences — an islet safe from blue foxes. An eider nest and a gull nest are sometimes situated only a few feet apart, apparently in good neighborly relations. Yet the gulls seize the eggs or the downy young of the Pacific eider when they have an opportunity. In fact, it appears that' the gulls manage to devour an appreciable percentage of eider increase, both in eggs and young. Other nesting birds may be thus preyed upon under favorable circumstances. On Semichi Island, Scheffer and I were passing a lake, when a common loon swam off at our approach, leaving two downy young. A glaucous-winged gull swooped down, picked up a young loon and flew off with it, pursued by another gull. Certain adult birds are also taken by gulls. On Semisopochnoi Island, in a least auklet rookery, 137 glaucous-winged gull pellets were collected and analyzed, with the following results: Least auklet 116 pellets Forked-tailed petrels 3 pellets Small fish V pellets Sea urchin 8 pellets Limpet 3 pellets On Gareloi Island we found gull pellets that contained both least and crested auklets, and two fulmar eggs. Some of the bird material, especially that of the crested auklets, probably was carrion left by blue foxes ; however, our observations were not conclusive. The sea urchin is another important item in this gull's diet throughout the entire Aleutian district. At Unalaska, on May 27, 1937, we saw a large flock of these gulls, chiefly immature birds, feeding back in the hills ; apparently they were pulling up small clumps of grass. Regurgitated ma- terial consisted mainly of seeds, but we did not have time to make a thorough study of this incident. Where the gulls depend on the tides for their food, they naturally adapt their foraging periods to the time of ebb tide. This was noted particularly in Izembek Bay. At Glen Island, it was noted that fewer birds were present at the colony during low tide; when the tide came in, the colony was in full force. Incidentally, it seemed that by means of a division of labor, the nests remained guarded while a part of the colony fed. 170 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On Hazen Point, June 13, 1925, I watched large flocks of gray, immature gulls resting 400 yards inland from shore during ebb tide. This area was covered with numerous oval pellets com- posed of crab fragments. I also found clam shells, which were partly overgrown with vegetation. Obviously, this was a favorite, perhaps an ancestral, resting area, where nonbreeding glaucous- winged gulls had rested and digested food gleaned from the last ebb tide. Ecological Relations It is clear that the clever, adaptable glaucous-winged gull finds its living in a great variety of ways, effectively filling the ecological niche in which it happens to find itself. What is the effect on its environment? The gull is a scavenger, and the effect of its food habits may be somewhat beneficial to man. Gleanings from the beach, which include crabs, clams, sea urchins and other "shellfish" probably do not upset any balance and, so far as we know, have no bearing on human interests in the area considered here. As for depredations in murre and eider colonies, we did not work out the ecological problem in any systematic way, yet certain observations may be significant. Perhaps nowhere are depredations more severe than in a murre colony. However, on Bogoslof Island, where such gull depredations on eggs and young have continued for a long time, the murres were present in great numbers and were utilizing all the available nesting sites. The same situation seemed to prevail on other islands. For more detailed consideration of this matter, the reader is referred to the discussion of the murre. Likewise, the Pacific eider, which also is preyed upon by these gulls, appears able to produce a satisfactory increase in population by the end of the summer. It should be remembered that this eider is not preyed upon by man to any appreciable extent, except for the robbing of nests for fresh eggs in a few localities. View- ing the situation as a whole, it appears that, at least in the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian Islands district, the Pacific eider and the murre, as well as other species, survive in satisfactory num- bers in spite of the gulls. The glaucous-winged gull is believed to feed on salmon eggs and to prey upon the spawning salmon in shallow streams. This question would require special study, with attention given to the breeding habits and ecological requirements of salmon and the percentage of loss occasioned by the gulls. Naturally, such de- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 171 tailed work could not be attempted in the course of our general investigation. Larus schistisagus: Slaty-backed Gull This bird is seldom seen on the Alaskan coastline, though it is common on the Siberian side of Bering Sea. Nelson (1887) records a specimen taken by Bean, October 1, 1880, at the head of Chernofski Bay, Unalaska, saying, "the birds were abundant there at the time." He adds : "Further work in this region may show that this specimen is of regular and common occurrence at many points on the Alaskan coast, although it was not noted by myself nor by any previous explorer there." The slaty-backed gull has continued to be rare, however, and has seldom been seen. Swarth (1934) wrote "None collected but several identified in life [by C. G. Harrold] from time to time. An adult was shot from the ship but lost, between Kodiak and Akutan, May 16, and others were seen at Cape Etolin [Nunivak Island] on August 27 and 29." Gianini (1917), speaking of Stepovak Bay, Alaska Peninsula, says "I noted but one or two here." Clark (1910) observed a few in Unalga Pass, near Unalaska, but saw no more until he reached the Commander Islands. In the course of three expeditions to the Aleutians I saw a dark-mantled gull only once — at Bogoslof Island, August 24, 1937, when a single gull of this kind was noted among some glaucous- winged gulls. The specimen was collected and proved to be schistisagus. On February 14, 1941, F. L. Beals obtained a good specimen of a female at Atka Island, and on March 15, 1942, he obtained parts of another at Sanak. Gabrielson saw 1 at False Pass on March 16, 1942, and was told of 1 at Unalaska, March 20. Larus argentatus: Herring Gull Larus argentatus smithsonianus Friedmann (1935) says "The only definite Kodiak specimens known to me are two birds collected by Wosnessensky in 1842 or 1843, another taken on August 30, 1906 and a number of bones unearthed from old Eskimo middens by Hrdlicka in 1934." He also recorded (1937) bones of this gull from middens at Dutch Harbor, Little Kiska, and Attu. Jaques (1930) reports "One immature near the Shumagin Islands." Cahalane (1944) observed a number of gulls on Naknek River, 172 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Naknek Lake, and Brooks Lake in 1940, which he believed were of this species, and Gabrielson, in 1940, observed the species at various points along the base of Alaska Peninsula. Taber reports Larus argentatus wintering at Adak Island, but specimens were not obtained. Sutton and Wilson observed a few among the gulls wintering on Attu Island. We saw no herring gulls on any of our expeditions. Larus argentatus vegae According to the 1931 Check-List, this gull "occurs casually in Bering Sea and on the coast of Alaska to the Aleutian Islands." Swarth (1934) obtained three gulls of the argentatus type from Nunivak Island, which could not be satisfactorily identified. Many of the sight records of herring gulls centered around the base of Alaska Peninsula, where they appeared to be too common to be the Siberian-ranging vegae; all such records are here in- cluded under smithsonianus. Clark (1910), referring to Larus vegae, says: "This gull was rather common in Unalga Pass, near Unalaska, and was seen again, though not in any numbers in Avacha Bay, Kamchatka." There is at least one specimen of this gull — a female collected by F. L. Beals at Unalaska on February 14, 1942. Larus delawarensis: Ring-billed Gull In 1911, Wetmore recorded in his field notes: "In August I noted a few ring-billed gulls about the head of the lagoon back of King Cove, where they were feeding on dead dog salmon, that lay in a creek bed. I shot one for identification but did not preserve it." This is the only record of this species west of Prince William Sound. Larus canus: Mew Gull Larus canus brachyrhynchus Turner (1886) makes the surprising statement that "Among the Aleutian Islands these birds congregate in many thousands on the cliffs to breed." Obviously, this is an error, since he describes very well the nesting habitat of kittiwakes, and not the marsh or lake habitat chosen by the short-billed gull. In view of this, it is hard to credit his further remarks on the food habits of this gull at Atka and Amchitka. Nelson (1887) states the situation more in keeping with the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 173 usual findings when he says "Although perhaps occurring as a straggler on the Eastern Aleutian Islands during the migrations, it is nearly or quite unknown on the other islands of Bering Sea, except those closely bordering the shoreline." On September 7, 1938, Scheffer noted a few of these gulls feeding on scraps at the Akutan whaling station, and, on Septem- ber 8, he noted them with glaucous-winged gulls feeding on refuse behind the ship. Friedmann (1937) has recorded two humeri of this gull from middens on Attu Island. Aside from Friedmann's find, there are no records west of Akutan. In 1925, I noted this species at the cannery at False Pass, and, on May 25, 1937, a few were seen at Ikatan Peninsula. There are suitable lowland nesting places on Unimak Island. Nests and eggs were found among some small ponds on Dolgoi Island on May 25, 1937. Evidently, nesting was just beginning, for only one of the nests contained eggs. These gulls were observed also at Sand Point and Unga, in the Shumagins, August 29, 1936. In 1911, Wetmore observed short-billed gulls at Thin Point Bay and King Cove, and Gianini (1917) reports them at Step- ovak Bay. On May 17, 1936, we found a widely scattered colony of short-billed gulls on a wide marshy flat at Belkofski ; this colony consisted of fifty to several hundred pairs. This was the largest "colony" discovered. In 1925, I found these gulls nesting about Izembek Bay in moderate numbers. Jaques (1930) found them to be common in June in the Port Moller region, where they nest, and, at Snag Point, Nushagak River, we found them to be common on May 23 to 26, 1936. They also were numerous on the tide flats near Ugashik River, where they were preparing to nest. Hine (1919) noted the species at Kashvik Bay and obtained a specimen. We saw one on May 12, 1936, at Kodiak, and we saw three or four at Nagai, one of the Barren Islands, on May 16. We had found them to be common at Seward on May 5 ; we saw a few at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7; and we saw some that appeared to be preparing to nest at Anchorage on May 9. This fairly well outlines the nesting range — from Unimak Island to Kodiak, Seward, and Bristol Bay — which contains the marshland that this gull desires. Taber (1946) reports four of these gulls at Adak Island, January 12, 1946. 174 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Food Habits Little was learned about the food habits of the short-billed gull. In 1925, I found these gulls on the tundra back of Izembek Bay, among the salmon streams. No doubt they feed on fish scraps left by the Alaska brown bears, but they also eat salmon eggs. Where the water was a little deep, the gulls would drop headfirst and partly submerge in order to reach the salmon eggs on the bottom. The stomach of a bird taken for a specimen was crammed full of salmon eggs. Larus Philadelphia: Bonaparte's Gull This little gull is found only sparingly in most of the area here considered, though it is abundant in southeastern Alaska. At Petersburg, a favorite gathering place, flocks assemble at the docks of the shrimp cannery and feed on the refuse. At Juneau, they were eating herring roe attached to fish nets, and we found them again at Cordova. They are reported to be a plentiful summer bird, and they nest at Yakutat (Shortt 1939). Though they might be expected on Kodiak, such records have not been found. On May 5, 1936, several were noted at Seward, and one was seen there on May 21, 1937. On May 9, 1936, several were seen at Anchorage, and a pair seemed to be preparing to nest at a small marsh, near town. Osgood (1904) reports a pair of these gulls, evidently nesting, on Lake Iliamna, July 16, 1902, and he mentions specimens taken by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak, at Lake Aleknagik, and at Ugashik. Jaques (1930) found about 40 near Port Moller on June 10, and Hine observed large flocks and took specimens in Kashvik Bay about August 1, 1919. Cahalane found them common on Naknek River, September 3 and 4, 1940, and saw one on Savanoski River, September 20. In 1940, Gabrielson observed these gulls in the Bristol Bay region, and, in 1945, he obtained two specimens at Chignik. McGregor (1906) found this species among the Krenitzin group of the Aleutians as follows : a bird and a wing found at Tigalda Bay on August 6; about 30 seen off Ugamak on August 12; 1 seen off Tigalda, and 4 seen off Poa, on August 15. He states that they were abundant at Dutch Harbor, August 17. Bishop (1900) reported these gulls common at Unalaska, October 4-5, 1899. The base of Alaska Peninsula and the Cook Inlet region lie within the normal breeding range of this gull. Occurrences westward on Alaska Peninsula can hardly be considered nesting FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 175 records without further proof, and certainly this would be true also of those seen in the Aleutians. Larus ridibundus: Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus sibiricus On June 4, 1937, Douglas Gray noted 3 strange gulls among the glaucous-winged gulls in Kiska Harbor, at Kiska Island, and took 1 for a specimen. This was at first hastily identified as a Bona- parte's Gull, but, on later examination, it proved to be L. r. sibiricus, which is the only positive record for North America (Muriel945). Rissa tridactyla: Black-legged Kit+iwake Rissa tridactyla pollicaris Attu: Teegle-ah'-girch Atka: Teegle-gd-gha Eussian: Commander Islands: Gavaruschka, "on account of its loquacity" (Stejneger) Chukchi: Kakyttack (Palmen) The Pacific kittiwake can truly be said to occur throughout the entire length of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain ; however, it nests only in suitable places. Gabrielson (1940) has described the large colony at Resurrection Point, near Seward, and he recorded two large colonies on Whale Island, near Kodiak. The largest colony we observed was on Chisik Island, Cook Inlet. Some estimates of the number of birds on Chisik Island ran as high as 25,000 birds. At any rate, we judged this to be the largest kittiwake colony that we observed on our trip, though it may be rivaled by the Resurrection Bay and Whale Island rookeries. We observed groups of these birds along both sides of Alaska Peninsula, as far east as Bristol Bay on the north side. Cahalane found them in some numbers in the Katmai region, and Hine observed them at Katmai Bay in 1919 — though they did not appear there until about August 10. Gianini (1917) reports a small colony on a rocky islet in Stepovak Bay. Gabrielson found them to be common in the Semidi Islands, and we found them in the Shumagins. There is a colony on a rocky headland on Unga Island. They nest in large numbers on Amak Island, and there is a small colony on some cliffs at Cave Point, on the north side of Unimak Island. We found the Pacific kittiwake in moderate numbers, with occasional concentrations, throughout the Aleutian chain. There 176 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE A. K ^J&2¥ Figure 31. — Black-legged kittiwakes. are nesting colonies on Chagulak, Amukta, Koniuji, Buldir, Unalga, Alaicl (of the Semichi group), Agattu, and Attu. There were at least 2 colonies on Attu Island ; 1 of them was on Wrangell Cape, which is the westernmost point in the Aleutians. There were at least 3 colonies on Agattu, 1 of which contained 300 to 400 birds. An interesting observation was made in regard to the colonies on Attu and Agattu, where we noticed a number of birds in immature plumage perching on points near the nesting pairs. Because of the time of year (too early for full-grown young) , these birds must have been 1-year-olds that were lingering about their birthplace. Rissa brevirostris: Red-legged Kittiwake Aleut: Gagdyax (Larus brevirostris Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Krasno-nogaja gavaruschka (Stejneger) Clark (1910) reported that "The red-legged kittiwake was seen in small numbers at sea near Unalaska, but became more FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 177 common in the western part of the Aleutian chain and about the Commander Islands. It was not found in Kamchatka nor in the Kurils." Bishop (1900) says "One was seen by Osgood at Unalaska (Dutch Harbor) Oct. 5, 1899." Nelson (1887) found them "in considerable numbers" at Un- alaska on May 26 and Friedmann (1937) has recorded two humeri from middens on Kodiak Island. We have no nesting records based on specimens. Nelson (1887) says it is an "abundant summer resident in both the Near and Commander islands." He had never been there and obviously was quoting Turner. In 1885, Turner stated, writing of the Near Islands, that the Pacific kittiwake was not abundant and was not known to breed there, while brevirostris was an abundant breeding bird. No specimens were taken. In 1886, speaking of the Aleutians as a whole, he said, The Aleutian Islands and the Pribylof group are its home. On Akutan quite a number were observed on a high cliff near the village on that island. In the same year (1878) I saw a few at Sannakh, and in later years I frequently saw them passing the vessel which I was on. To the westward this kittiwake occurs more plentifully than tridactyla, with which it asso- ciates. It is true that Clark reported the red-legged kittiwake becom- ing "more common in the western part of the Aleutian chain," but, on the whole, the situation today appears to be the reverse of what Turner reported. Certainly we cannot say that the Aleu- tians "are its home." We found that pollicaris was the abundant bird in the Near Islands — based on careful examination of speci- mens and of birds on nesting cliffs — while Turner stated that it did not breed there. Wetmore, in 1911, and Gabrielson, in 1940, failed to note the red-legged kittiwake in the Aleutians; Bent does not report any nesting records, but he assumes that it nests there on the strength of the records mentioned above. On our expeditions we observed kittiwakes closely at all times, but we never identified brevirostris. All of the birds that we col- lected proved to be the Pacific kittiwake. Turner (1886) obviously confused the short-billed gull with the kittiwake, and it is possible that he was in error in his account of the nesting of brevirostris. At any rate, we can be assured that the red-legged kittiwake appears in the Aleutians as a migrant, because the observations listed above probably involve migrants. The bird may also nest in the Aleutians, but, in view of the uncertainties, any such claim 178 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE should be based on a precise observation, or on specimens of breeding birds. Hartert (1920) and Stejneger (1885) reported both species nesting on the Commander Islands, usually in separate colonies, according to Stejneger, though he once found both species nest- ing on the same cliff. Xema sabini: Sabine's Gull Xema sabini woinesenskii Friedmann (1935) reports a specimen from Kodiak, taken by Bischoff, July 25, 1868, and Gabrielson observed one there on August 10, 1945. Osgood (1904) apparently did not observe it at the base of Alaska Peninsula, but he records a specimen taken by McKay at Lake Aleknagik. Hanna obtained a specimen at Nushagak, May 31, 1911. These birds undoubtedly nest on Alaska Peninsula, however. At Ugashik River, May 27 to 29, 1936, they were common on the tide flats, in pairs, obviously preparing to nest. This area is identical in character with the nesting habitat of this species noted at Hooper Bay in 1924. It is probable that Sabine's gull nests farther west — at Port Heiden and Port Moller for example. We could not examine those areas thoroughly, but, on May 22, at least one bird, in immature plumage, was seen offshore opposite Nelson Lagoon, and Jaques (1930) reports an adult at Port Moller on May 23, 1928. There is no evidence that these birds nest to the west of Nelson Lagoon, although they have been observed much farther west. On May 18, 1936, one was seen at False Pass, Unimak Island. On May 11, 1925, I saw one at Urilia Bay, and McGregor (1906) obtained a specimen on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901. In June 1937, the natives of Atka Island obtained a specimen, which they presented to us — this specimen is the westernmost record in the Aleutians. Hartert (1920) records a specimen of an adult male from the Commander Islands, which apparently is the only record for those islands. Sterna hirundo: Common Tern Sterna hirundo hirundo The only record of this bird is a brief statement by Wetmore in his field report of 1911: "I saw several common terns 50 miles off Tigalda Island, June 4." FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 179 Sterna paradisaea: Arctic Tern Attu: Ki-ti-ki-tee-ach Atka: Kri-thich'-tha Russian, Yana region: Tschemogrudka (Birula) Chukchi: Tekechyak (Palmen) Arctic terns nest in suitable places all the way from Kodiak Island to Attu. Walker (1923) observed a small colony in Alitak Bay, Kodiak Island, and reports them nesting at least as far south as Taku Glacier, near Juneau. We were informed that a colony of terns, presumably of this species, nested at Bear Bay, near Belkofski, and on an island in Pavlof Bay. Walker has also recorded terns as being common on Simeonof Island, in the Shumagins. On the north side of Alaska Peninsula a few Arctic terns were seen at Ugashik River, probably nesting, and there was a nesting colony at Nelson Lagoon. In late July 1940, Gabrielson found them to be common on the basal portions of Alaska Peninsula, particularly between Becharof Lake and Egegik can- nery, on the Wood River Lakes, along Kvichak River, and on the upper end of Iliamna Lake. In 1925, I found them nesting at Izembek Bay, a few in the marshy bottom of the valley running north from Aghileen Pin- nacles; a group of 40 and a group of 200 on two small islands near Point Grant; and at least 2 pairs at a small pond near the base of Frosty Peak. In 1940, Gabrielson found 10 pairs and 3 nests at Morzhovoi Bay on June 21. In the Aleutians proper, we were told that there was a colony on Kanaga, a few were seen on Tanaga, and we found several colonies on Ogliuga and Skagul. A flock of eight or ten was seen at the south end of Kiska Island, and we noted 15 or 20 at a low reef in Massacre Bay, Attu Island, June 9, 1937. Evidently, there were nesting or preparing to nest. Three pairs were nesting on a small island of a lake on Alaid, and another pair was nest- ing on the middle island of the Semichi group. Turner reported them plentiful here, and breeding. A few birds were noted at Semisopochnoi and Amchitka, and in 1938 Scheffer saw one at Sanak Island. The Arctic tern is not abundant among the Aleutian Islands, and the islands mentioned here are probably the majority of those occupied by these terns. Colonies are usually small, and even one or two pairs may be all that nest in a given locality. Arctic terns nest in the Commander Islands. 180 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Food Habits We did not obtain extensive data on food habits. However, we noticed that Arctic terns followed in the wake of our ship when traveling through Bristol Bay. It is possible that the terns de- sired to feed on the ship's refuse, as gulls commonly do, but it seemed more likely that these terns intended to feed on the small invertebrates, which were brought to the surface by the churning action of the ship's propellers. Sterna aleutica: Aleutian Tern This tern was first discovered on Kodiak Island and was de- scribed by Baird from a specimen taken there. As Friedmann has pointed out, there is one specimen and an egg taken by Bischoff on June 12, 1868, when these terns were breeding on Kodiak Island, and, in addition, the National Museum has 12 other eggs taken by Bischoff in that same year, as well as 4 eggs taken by W. J. Fisher in July 1882. But because original data slips are not present, there can be some doubt as to identification of these eggs. Bretherton noted the birds associating with Arctic terns as late as 1895, but there were no later records until Howell (1948) reported a colony of 50 pairs nesting on Double Island, at Kodiak, June 11, 1944. These, too, were associating closely with a colony of 100 pairs of Arctic terns. Nelson (1887) described 2 nesting places, 1 on an island about a mile from St. Michael in the mouth of the "canal," the other on an island "some 18 miles to the eastward, along the coast, and less than a mile from the Eskimo village of Kegikhtowik." In 1920, I visited the first-mentioned of these two islands. The Aleutian terns were still there, but the island was being used as a slaughtering ground for reindeer, and all the nests were tram- pled by the animals. Fragments of downy young birds were noted. More recent information indicates that these terns no longer nest on this island. Ernest P. Walker found Aleutian terns nesting on Strawberry Island, Situk River flats, near Yakutat (1923) . Friedmann (1933) reports a colony of Aleutian terns nesting at the mouth of Goodnews Bay. These were discovered by D. Bern- ard Bull, who estimated between 60 and 75 pairs, together with some Arctic terns. Mr. Bull obtained 1 of the birds with the eggs. As Friedmann says, this is no doubt the largest colony now known on our shores. Jaques (1930) says "Several hundred were seen at Port Moller, May 22 to 30," but he says nothing about nesting. We saw none FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 181 on our visit to Port Moller in 1936, but found Arctic terns nest- ing at Nelson Lagoon. As many as "several hundred" Aleutian terns would indicate a nesting colony, the largest yet known, but unfortunately there are no further details. It is to be hoped that a good nesting colony will be found on that part of Alaska Penin- sula. In 1925, I thoroughly investigated reports of the nesting of this tern on Unimak Island. Donald H. Stevenson, who had spent 5 years in the Aleutians, reported a colony of Aleutian terns on a little sand island in St. Catherine Cove, on the east end of Unimak Island, and a local guide, John Gardner, appeared to know the species and corroborated Stevenson's statement. However, upon investigation it was found that the powerful tidal currents pre- vailing there, which no doubt had deposited the little island originally, had washed it away again since Stevenson's last visit. He had collected specimens, some of them at that breeding place. Moreover, on May 20, 1925, I observed 3 terns at St. Catherine Cove, 1 of which was identified as aleutica. The other two, though not observed so closely, were probably the same. On the whole, there is good reason to accept this record of nesting, the first for the Aleutians proper. Not far from this locality, at Izembek Bay, on Alaska Penin- sula, we obtained good evidence of nesting. On June 16, 1925, we saw a number of Aleutian terns flying toward Point Grant, and one was shot for a specimen. This specimen was a male with incubation patches. On June 30, three or four terns flew by at an island near Point Grant. Two specimens that were taken proved to be a breeding male and a female. We covered this area pretty thoroughly, but we found no nest- ing colonies; however, it is safe to say that Aleutian terns were nesting somewhere in that vicinity. Possibly a few were nesting in the Arctic tern colony, undetected by us, or they may have been in a group by themselves. On August 14, 1936, C. S. Williams picked up a wing on Nunivak Island, which proved to be that of an immature Aleutian tern. There are a number of specimens taken on Sakhalin Island in 1914. Stejneger did not find them in the Commander Islands, but Hartert records a specimen, a male, taken in 1911 on Copper Island, the first record for the Commanders. The Aleutian tern apparently shifts its nesting place in the face of adverse circumstances. This can be construed as an adaptabil- ity of survival value. It is possible that this rare species will become more safely established in the Alaskan avifauna. 182 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family ALCIDAE Uria aalge: Common Murre Uria lomvia: Thick-billed Murre Una aalge inornata Uria lomvia arra Attu : Oo-la-rhook-ta Atka: O-loong-thrah Sakitax (Jochelson) Russian (?), Commander Islands: Are (Stejneger) Undoubtedly, natives do not distinguish the two species. The Commander Island name given by Stejneger (referring to the sound made by the birds), which is assigned to Uria I. arra, may be Russian. Necessarily, these .two species will have to be discussed to- gether, because, in many cases, it was not known which species of murre predominated in a rookery. Only a few birds could be identified because the two species were intimately associated on the nesting cliffs. In early spring, murres can be seen at frequent intervals from the Kodiak-Afognak region to the end of Alaska Peninsula, and in most places throughout the Aleutian chain. Many of these probably are migrants. Beals and Longworth (field report for 1941), writing of Uni- mak Island, said — Murres were far from plentiful through the month of March. . . One or two birds a day at the most were all we saw until well into April. On March 16 we saw two birds in full summer plumage. . . Through May only scattered pairs and small groups of 3-5 birds were encountered. From the last of May until leaving the island June 17, larger bunches were being seen, groups of 15 and 20 in full summer plumage. They nest on Bird Island near Ikatan Peninsula we are told. Cahn speaks of the murre at Unalaska Island as "a rare and solitary fall, winter and spring visitor." There are numerous nesting colonies, often associated with kittiwakes. Gabrielson (1940) has described the large colony associated with kittiwakes at Resurrection Point. He also found some birds nesting at Kodiak and saw large numbers in the Semidi Islands. At the Semidis only inornata was identified. Among the outstanding murre colonies that we visited was the one on Amak Island. In 1925, I spent 9 days on this island and came to the conclusion that most of the thousands of birds on the cliffs were Pallas thick-billed murres. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 183 Bogoslof Island is noted for its sea lions and its murres. Here again, although both species are present, we concluded that Pallas murres were in the majority. In 1938, Scheffer estimated that there were about 50,000 of these birds on Bogoslof. There is a notable colony, consisting of both species, on the steep cliffs of Kagamil Island ; however, we could make no esti- mate of the relative abundance of each. Chagulak and Amukta Islands also have their murre colonies, and we found a small group on Seguam — all of these colonies contained both species. On Chagulak, the Pallas thick-billed murre again seemed to predominate. Both species nest on Kasatochi, and unidentified murre colonies were seen at a distance on Koniuji. We found 2 colonies on Attu and 3 colonies on Agattu. Other small groups nest on various cliffs, and the murre is found almost everywhere throughout the Aleutian chain and along the south side of Alaska Peninsula. On the north side of the Peninsula, however, they do not occur as a nesting bird east of Amak Island, because the low relatively flat coastal plain does not afford proper nesting sites. At Agattu Island, on June 11, 1937, we obtained a specimen of Pallas's murre that was weak, very thin, and still in winter plumage. Ecology of the Murre The ecological reactions between gulls and murres have already been discussed, but further attention should be given this ques- tion with special reference to the murre. It is a well-known fact that large gulls, in this instance L. gkiucescens, visit bird-nesting colonies (such as those of murres) to feed on eggs and young. When one observes this relationship in action for the first time, one becomes apprehensive that the prey species will be drastically reduced in numbers, or exterminated, through interference with the reproducing function. However, the more one studies this problem, the more one is impressed with the principle of mutual racial adjustment, or balance. Amak Island may be cited as an example. There are the usual colonies of glaucous-winged gulls adjacent to the murre cliffs, together with several nesting pairs of northern bald eagles and Peale's falcons. I visited this island in the summer of 1925, in the month of July. There was plenty of time to take stock of the avifauna of this little island, for we had to remain 9 days before the weather permitted departure in the small boat. In 1936, we visited the island again, which gave us the opportunity for com- parison after an interval of 11 years. Conditions had obviously 184 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE remained static. There were the numerous murres and gulls, and about the same number of nesting eagles and falcons. On Bogoslof Island, in 1937, we watched the glaucous-winged gulls seizing eggs and young murres, apparently on a large scale. In 1938, Scheffer remarked in his field report, "On the island [Bogoslof], more murres were noted this year resting on the cliffs or vertical bluffs where the party landed in 1937 and 1938." Apparently, the colony was not only holding its own, but it may have been increasing. The bluffs mentioned by Scheffer were not in the main nesting grounds, and were not typical, nor per- haps as favorable, in some respects. Possibly these bluffs were in reality an overflow area in a crowded bird population. R. A. Johnson (1938) has presented a detailed study of preda- tion of gulls in murre colonies, based on his own specific studies of Atlantic murres and great black-backed gulls, as well as re- ports of other ornithologists. One factor is disturbance by a human intruder, which makes the murres more vulnerable to attack by gulls. Johnson believes that the fear response by the murres is very important, and that it is a colony response. Once a decline in a murre colony is begun and the colony becomes con- Figure 32. — Colony of Pallas's thick-billed murres on nesting cliffs of Bogoslof Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 185 Figure 33. — Pallas's thick-billed murres. ditioned to the fear stimulus, either by human disturbance or by excessive predation, progressive reduction of the colony may result. In the Aleutian district, no such drastic reduction of a popu- lation came to our notice. Probably there is a minimum of human intrusion. Furthermore, in many cases the historical background was unknown. The murre is one of the animal species preyed upon rather extensively by raptorial forms. Yet, it does not find it necessary to produce more than a single young in a season. On the other hand, it nests in close-packed colonies and exists in large num- bers, and it seems that local predation has little effect. In common with some other sea birds, murres often succumb to the elements and are found washed upon the beach. Beals and Longworth, reporting for Unimak Island in 1941, wrote : Between April 2 and 4 numerous dead and sick murres were along all the beaches. We counted 37 dead birds along 3 miles of beach. The condition was general along the strait [probably Isanotski strait], we were told. Old- timers on Unimak told us that this happens every spring and that some years the beach is black with dead birds. Swimming in close to the waterline many of them appeared to be sick or very weak and hardly able to dive in shallow water. Altogether we saw 38 dead birds and 40 or more very weak ones along 3 miles of beach. For three days before this heavy winds and snow blew from the southeast. 186 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE One would expect such heavy mortality over a considerable area to be disastrous, but the reproductive rate seems ample to cope with all such natural opposing forces, as well as with predation. Cepphus columba: Pigeon Guillemot Cepphus columba kaiurka Attu: Secv-luch Siblux (Jochelson) Atka: Seem-luch Sinilux (Jochelson) Commander Islands: Kajurka (Stejneger) Russian, Commander Islands: Svistun (Stejneger) There may be an error in the Commander Islands names. Stejneger told me that both Aleut and Russian was spoken on those islands. The supposed native name, Kajurka, appears to have the structure of Russian, and Svistun is essentially the same name that Turner found applied to a scoter in the Aleutians, and that I found applied to the American scoter by residents on Uni- mak Island. The race found in the Commander Islands is C. c. kaiurka. The pigeon guillemot is so universally distributed, from Kodiak Island to Attu, that an enumeration of localities is superfluous. Along the north side of Alaska Peninsula it was observed at Moller Bay by Jaques (1930), and specimens have been taken at Nushagak. Usually they are found in small groups. Possibly the largest aggregation was a loose band of 40 seen at Chugul Island, west of Atka. They nest among boulders on the shore or in crevices of cliffs. Birds were occasionally seen with an unseasonable whitish suffusion on the plumage, suggesting the winter dress. The first one was noted June 24, 1937, at Davidof Island, and another was noted on June 26, at Little Sitkin. Several were noted at Rat Island, June 30; several were seen at Tanaga on August 3; one was seen at East Unalga, August 26; and several were seen at Sanak on August 29. During this period the vast majority were, of course, in the plain black summer dress. Apparently, two races of this guillemot breed in the Aleutians. Robert W. Storer (1950) has described Cepphus columba adianta, giving its range from the mouth of the Columbia River "north to and including the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians at least as far west as Umnak Island." This would leave the Aleutians west of Umnak and the Commander Islands to the race Cepphus columba kaiurka. I have not had an opportunity to investigate this, but the A.O.U. Check List has not recognized the validity FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 187 of adianta, therefore at present we may call this species, which breeds on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian chain as far as Umnak, C. c. columba. The race that is breeding on the more western Aleutian Islands and the Commander Islands is probably kaiurka, as indicated by Storer. In 1941, at Unimak Island, Beals and Longworth noted 4 birds in winter plumage, and 5 in summer plumage on March 26; a group of 15 birds in summer plumage was seen on April 8; and 8 in mottled plumage were noted on April 21. Brachyramphus marmoratum: Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratum marmoratum On our expeditions we observed this bird frequently in south- eastern Alaska, where it is common. On May 6, 1936, a bird in the black and white plumage was seen at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula; on May 11, at least 6 were seen between the Barren Islands and Af ognak ( 1 of these birds was in the black and white plumage) ; and on May 14, one or two birds (believed to be of this species) were seen south of Alaska Peninsula and southwest of Sutwik Island. Other murreiets were seen, but under circum- stances unfavorable for identification. Marbled murreiets occur at Kodiak, as shown by Friedmann's well-documented account, and may nest there. Osgood (1904) says "Several murreiets (apparently this species) were seen on Kanatak Bay October 13. A single immature specimen (No. 106605 U.S.N.M.) was taken near Nushagak by J. W. Johnson, Sept. 5, 1885." Cahalane reports (1944) "I saw these birds commonly along the Shelikof Strait coast, from Katmai Bay northward. They seemed to be most abundant in Kukak and Hallo Bays." On July 27, 1940, Gabrielson observed a number of marbled murreiets at the upper end of Iliamna Lake. Gianini (1917) reports seeing this species at Stepovak Bay. In 1925, I observed murreiets on both sides of Alaska Penin- sula, near the western end, but positive identification was diffi- cult. The marbled murrelet was most abundant on the south side, between Ikatan Peninsula and Amagat Island, where several pairs were taken. The species has been recorded frequently from Unalaska. Nel- son (1887) found it there in May 1877 and says that it breeds there. Bailey (1925) reports a specimen taken there by Hendee on September 24, 1922, and Clark (1910) secured a female at Dutch Harbor. Laing (1925) obtained a "breeding female with 188 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE bare brood patches" at Unalaska on August 8, 1924, and he saw a murrelet at Adak Island, but he was doubtful of identification. There is no information on the nesting of the marbled murrelet beyond Unalaska Island. Brachyramphus brevirostre: Kittlitz's Murrelet Glacier Bay has been shown to be the center of abundance of the Kittlitz's murrelet (Grinnell 1909), but of course it occurs much farther west and north. Actual records for the Kodiak-Afognak Islands are not at hand, though the birds undoubtedly have occurred there. Osgood (1904) mentions three specimens taken by McKay near Nushagak, April 3, 1883, and Jaques (1930) obtained a specimen at Port Moller, June 6, 1928. Laing (1925) obtained a male in full winter plumage at Chignik Bay on March 22, 1924, and on July 27, 1925, I took a specimen in Isanotski Strait. Stevenson obtained a specimen there on August 3, and obtained one in Izembek Bay on June 17. It is of interest here to note that a specimen was taken on June 21, 1933, at Goodnews Bay, north of Alaska Peninsula, which was recorded by Friedmann (1934). Nelson (1887) obtained a specimen at Unalaska the last of May 1877; Turner (1886) obtained one there on April 24, 1879, and says that they are not rare at Amchitka and Atka, though he obtained no specimens at the latter places. He quotes natives as saying that this species occurs throughout the year at Sanak Island. On June 9, 1937, I collected a pair of Kittlitz's murrelets in Massacre Bay, Attu Island. The female had brood patches, and dissection showed that egg laying had taken place. The Attu chief knew this species and said that it nests on Attu and Agattu but does not winter there. According to him, the birds build a nest similar to that of kittiwakes, on ledges of cliffs, and lay two eggs. According to Turner's information from natives (1886), "The nest is placed among the roots of the large tussocks of grass on the edges of bluffs and cliff ledges." He stated that the birds lay a single pure white egg. F. E. Kleinschmidt (Thayer 1914) also refers to a white egg when he quotes Chester A. Reed, the data of Capt. Tilson : "Kitt- litz Murrelet — a pure white egg found in a hollow under a bunch of rank matted grass on Sanak Island, June 25, 1899." In May and June 1913, Kleinschmidt collected eggs of this bird, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 189 the nesting place being high in the mountains in the vicinity of Pavlof Bay. Some eggs were obtained from birds collected, but one egg was found on the bare lava rock, from which the bird was flushed. The egg, as described by John E. Thayer (1914), is not white, as had been reported, but "has a ground color of olive lake, dotted all over with different-sized markings of dark and light brown. Two others, taken from the oviduct of birds May 29, 1913, had a ground color of yellow glaucous, with dark brown spots over the whole egg." More recently, the species was found breeding at Wales, Alaska, on July 10, 1934, by an Eskimo, who sent the skin (of an incubat- ing female) to the Chicago Academy of Sciences. The next year, on June 29, the Eskimo obtained an egg. Edward R. Ford (1936) described the egg as having "the ground color of the Xantus murrelet egg figured as No. 6 on PI. 49 of Bent's 'Diving Birds of North America'. The markings are similar too, in character, but in color are black or very dark brown. In shape it is exactly like the Marbled Murrelet's egg shown as No. 5 on PI. 48 of the same work." There is one other record, not in an ornithological journal, but in a paper-covered pamphlet published by Rev. Bernard R. Figure 34. — Kittlitz's murrelet beside its egg. (Photo by Bernard Hubbard.) 190 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Hubbard (apparently for the tourist trade), entitled "One Hundred Pictures of Little Known Alaska." Among other pic- tures, there is a photograph of a "Rare merelet and egg," which undoubtedly is that of the Kittlitz's murrelet. The caption ex- plains that This very rare web-footed bird usually nests far from water on the rocky crests of mountain ridges. This specimen, unafraid of the camera, was gently lifted off its egg and photographed. The picture was taken in mid- July in the unmapped northern section of the Katmai National Monument on the Alaska Peninsula and is regarded as the only one in existence of this unusual bird and its egg. Synthliboramphus antiquum: Ancient Murrelet Attu: Satrch Sdtdx and qiddnax (Jochelson) Atka: Kriz-yung-a Russian (?), Commander Islands: Starik, "old man" (Stejneger) This murrelet is definitely established as a breeding bird of Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935), and we saw it at intervals all the way to the western end of the Aleutian chain. Jaques (1930) saw several near Belkofski, May 17 and 18, 1928; and McGregor (1906) obtained a specimen at the west side of Unimak Island, August 14, 1901. Probably this bird appears only rarely, if at all, along the north side of Alaska Peninsula, but in the Shumagins, on May 23, 1937, we found flocks of them to be quite common. Chase Littlejohn (Bendire 1895) has given us a vivid account of numbers of these birds nesting on Sanak Island, but on our brief visit to that is- land in 1937 we learned that large colonies of sea birds no longer nest there. Evidently, they have disappeared because of man's exploitation of fisheries, with the attendant disturbance, and be- Figure 35. — Ancient murrelet. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 191 cause of the blue-fox industry. Nelson (1887) states that Dall found the ancient murrelet breeding abundantly at the Chica Islets, in Akutan Pass, near Unalaska, and he adds that Dall found them to be abundant throughout the Aleutian chain. Turner (1886) obtained a specimen at Atka, June 12, 1879, and says "Among the Nearer Islands this Murrelet is abundant in summer, breeding, and is sparingly resident; rarely coming to Attu, but more plentiful on the western end of Semichi and the south side of Agattu." We recorded them specifically at Umnak, Kagamil, Carlisle, Herbert, Amukta, Adak, Amlia, Salt, Igitkin, Kasatochi, Gareloi, Ogliuga, Kiska, Little Sitkin, Buldir, and Semichi Islands. Beals and Longworth found them at Unimak Island in small groups from March 24 to April 27, 1941, and saw them again on August 28, 1941. We found the ancient murrelets nesting in burrows ; a cold egg was found on one occasion in the burrow of a tufted puffin. Early accounts and the statements of natives agree, however, that these murrelets also nest in clumps of tangled grass. Clark (1910) says "Ancient murrelets were very common all about the shores of the Aleutian Islands and in the bays and har- bors, being rather more numerous about Atka, Attu, and especially Agattu, than elsewhere." Cahn found them "not uncommon during the winter months" around Unalaska Island. This is one of the species that undoubtedly has greatly declined in recent years, as a result of increase of the blue-fox industry. Ptychoramphus aleutica: Cassin's Auklet Ptychoramphus aleutica aleutica Atka: Mak-cheeth-ah It proved to be a little difficult to identify this bird when speak- ing with the natives, but it is believed the native name given above is correct. We could obtain no name in the Attu dialect, as the people did not seem to know the bird. While the Cassin's auklet is supposed to range "from the Aleu- tians and Queen Charlotte Islands to Lower California," it is by no means equally abundant throughout this range, nor uni- formly present therein. It is known to nest at Kodiak (Fried- mann 1935). To the westward of that place it is no longer common. It formerly nested in large numbers on Sanak Island, according to local residents and early accounts (Bendire 1895), but today it has nearly, if not entirely, disappeared from that 192 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE nesting ground. However, on May 23, 1937, we saw several Cassin's auklets not far east of the Shumagins. On August 26, 1937, several flocks were noted off Lava Point, Akutan Island, and, on the next day, near Kaligagan Island in Unimak Pass, a few groups were noted. George Ermeloff, former chief of Umnak Village, stated that this auklet nested on Keegaloo and Adugak Island, but added: "I guess foxes finish now." On June 14, 1936, at least 12 of these birds were feeding in the tide rips off the shore of Yunaska Island in company with the more numerous whiskered auklets. Paul Dirks, former resident of Atka, said that years ago Cassin's auklets were numerous, "millions of them," on 2 small islands, 1 on the north side of Amlia, the other on the south side. He assumed that they were still there, but some native bystanders from Atka remarked that there are not so many there any more, for the blue foxes now swim over to these small islands. Paul's brother, Bill Dirks, chief of Atka Village, said these auklets also nest on one of the small islets at the east end of Tagalak, on Ikiginak, Oglodak, Amtagis, on a small islet in Iskum Bay (Atka Island) ; on a small islet in the bay west of Amlia Pass; on two pinnacles just west of Cape Idalug (Amlia Island) ; and on Tanadak, south of the east tip of Amlia. All of these islands mentioned by the Dirks brothers are in the general vicinity of Atka and Amlia Islands. It may be mentioned that Turner (1886) obtained his one specimen from Atka Island. On July 7, 1936, at Kasatochi Island, a number of these auklets were identified among the vastly more abundant least and crested auklets. Ilak Island was mentioned as another nesting place, but natives pointed out that blue foxes recently had been placed on that is- land. On our visit to Ilak Island, we found no live Cassin's auklets, but a few must have been present, for we found their remains in at least three blue-fox droppings. Clark (1910) noticed these birds about Unalaska, Atka, and Agattu, and he saw a few at Attu. We found none of these birds west of Ilak. In earlier times, the Cassin's auklet was considered a delicacy by the Aleuts, and Paul Dirks described one method of capture. A fire was built at night near their nesting place. As the birds came to the fire, dazzled by the light, they were seized and thrown into a bag. This attraction to light suggests the similar behaviour of the petrels. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 193 Cyclorrhynchus psittacula: Parakeet Auklet Attu : A-bo-chee-arch Atka: Krech-mo-ga-tha Russian, Commander Islands: Bjele-bruschka, "white breast" Bjele-bruski, plural (Stejneger) The parakeet auklet has been found nesting on Kodiak Island — where a few specimens have been taken, and where Fisher col- lected seven eggs in 1884 (Friedmann 1935). Apparently, that is the easternmost point in its nesting range, and probably it is not abundant there. We saw none in Kodiak-Afognak waters on our voyages, and they do not seem to be abundant along the Alaska Peninsula. On May 14, 1936, we found a few near Sutwik Island. On May 18 and 19, some of this species were identified among the numerous crested auklets feeding near Ikatan Penin- sula of Unimak Island, and, on May 21, a flock of 100 or more was seen near Cape Lazarof of that island. In the following year, we again noted these birds near Ikatan Peninsula, and they were fairly common near the Shumagins on May 23, 1937. These auklets apparently do not nest on the north side of Alaska Peninsula. On April 30, 1925, I found a dead parakeet auklet at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island; this was the only one seen in a summer's work in that area. They do not nest on Amak Island. Throughout the Aleutian Islands, however, this auklet is well distributed. On June 4, 1911, Wetmore observed "large flocks of paroquet [parakeet] auklets" in Unimak Pass. We found these birds in small numbers at Umnak, Kagamil, and Uliaga; they were quite plentiful at Carlisle, where they nest, and several were nesting on Chagulak. (In 1940, Gabrielson found them to be numerous there.) Nearly 150 were seen at Herbert Island, and several thousand of these birds nest on Seguam. A few were noted at Kagalaska, Aso, Tanaklak, Unak, Igitkin, Ulak (50 to 100), Kasatochi, Koniuji, Ogliuga, and Unalga. They were abun- dant on Gareloi, Kiska, and Buldir, and were seen in fair numbers on Semisopochnoi. A few were also noted at Segula (Chugul), Khwostof, Little Sitkin, Amchitka, near Kavalga, Ulak (178° W. long.), Ilak, and East Unalga. Probably the principal nesting colonies are those at Gareloi, Kiska, Buldir, and Seguam, while more-detailed study may show that Semisopochnoi also harbors a great many more than we noticed. We did not record the parakeet auklets in the Near Islands, but Turner (1895) reported it to be plentiful on Agattu, and Clark (1910) said that it was "rather numerous in Unalga Pass 194 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE as we approached the harbor of Unalaska, and was met with at Atka, Agattu, and Attu, though in small numbers." It also nests in the Pribilofs. Stejneger (1885) reported it to be a common nester in the Commander Islands, though not numerous, and said that they arrive there about the end of April. Turner intimated that they do not winter in the Near Islands. The parakeet auklets nest among large boulders on the beach and in crevices in rocky cliffs, also on slopes where the rocks are partly covered with vegetation. This bird has been considered quite solitary in habits, and although this is true for the most part, they occasionally occur in flocks of moderate size. They often gather in flocks on the water just out from the beach, where they sit and chatter in chorus; then they may suddenly disap- pear from the shoreline and if one were to inspect the beach at such time it would seem that there were no auklets in the vicinity. We concluded that the parakeet auklet does not consistently fly far out to sea to feed, as is common with other species of auklets. Its principal food seems to consist of small crustaceans. In his notes for 1938, Scheffer reports that, on August 12, at Ogliuga Island, the stomach of a 2-foot cod contained the entire body of a parakeet auklet. Aethia cristatella: Crested Auklet Attu: Ku-noo-yuch Atka: Ku-no6-yuh Commander Islands: Konjuga (Stejneger) Pribilofs: Canooskie, "Little Captain" (Preble) Eastern Aleutians: "Sea quail" Apparently, Kodiak Island is the eastern limit of the nesting range of the crested auklet. We saw none east of there. Fried- mann (1935) lists a number of specimens from Kodiak, and Laing observed them there in March (1925). Though the birds occur along the Alaska Peninsula, we did not discover nesting colonies there and did not see them in numbers until we reached Unimak Island. There, especially about Ikatan Peninsula, we saw them in characteristic flocks. Dense masses of them would fly over the water, and drop into it, in unison, with a splash, ap- parently disappearing from sight momentarily, but then appear- ing suddenly like a dark carpet undulating with the swells. We saw some of these birds opposite Urilia Bay, on the north side of Unimak Island, but we did not learn where these Unimak birds nest. We were told that they do not nest on the Sanak Island group. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 195 In the Shumagins, however, the crested auklets evidently have nested in huge numbers. Townsend (1913) has given us a vivid account of his experience with these birds at Big Koniuji, in the Shumagins. In Yukon Harbor there were "myriads" of these birds, and Townsend declares that here the crested auklets were more numerous than the least auklets were on St. George, in the Pribilofs. The crested auklet occurs along the north side of Alaska Penin- sula, but not as a nesting bird. Turner (1886) observed them in Bristol Bay and along the north side of the Peninsula. Osgood (1904) records 2 specimens taken by J. W. Johnson at Nushagak on April 22, 1885, and he records 2 specimens taken by McKay at Nushagak and Ugashik. This auklet nests throughout the Aleutian chain, though usually not in great numbers. There are sizeable colonies, however, on Chagulak, Seguam, Koniuji, Kasatochi, Gareloi, Semisopochnoi, Kiska, and Buldir, and, of course, there are lesser colonies on other islands. Turner (1885) reported them to be plentiful and nesting in the Near Islands. Hartert (1910) noted a few near Unalaska, "but at Atka, Attu, and especially Agattu, they were much more plentiful." Stejneger (1885) reported this bird nest- ing on both of the Commander Islands, though not abundantly. Nesting and Feeding Habits The crested auklet nests deep in crevices among boulders on the beach, in cavities in cliffs, or among jumbled lava rock on high slopes. When feeding, they fly in compact flocks and often go far out to sea. On August 9, 1937, we had an opportunity to observe large numbers of foraging crested auklets. They came in flocks through the pass between Tagalak and Ikigmak Islands (which lie west of Atka) , and the water in, and south of, the pass was dotted with the birds. Here, they were literally "loading up" with food to take back to their young, and some were so full they could hardly fly. From our knowledge of the existing nesting places in this section of the Aleutians, we knew that these swarms of auklets must have come from Koniuji or Kasatochi, or both, and that they would have a distance of at least 10 miles to fly with their loads of food. It is certain, then, that crested auklets will go at least 10 miles out to sea to forage, perhaps farther. Observations on the nesting grounds show that small Crustacea form an important part of the diet. The rocks about the nest crevices were streaked pink with excrement or with material occasionally spewed out by the birds. 196 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE